CBSE Class 10 History Rise of Nationalism in Europe Worksheet Set A

The political and social movements in Europe leading to 1830s included the following :
- Development of a collective identity and visualization of nation states.
- Spread of liberal thoughts such as ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity.
- Dissatisfaction with political leadership that made people to demand more participation in the affairs of the states. Important changes occurred in America, France, Germany, Italy and Russia.
- Britain underwent a unique Glorious Revolution (1688). It was so called because no blood was shed to achieve its success. The Parliament removed King James II from the throne in favor of his daughter Mary II and her husband William III. The autocratic rule of James II was replaced with a constitutional form of government. It showed that the Parliament had the power to change the monarch.
- By the end of the 19th century however, the conservative forces in Europe backed by the monarchs were able to take control. The political development in the Balkans led to the disastrous First World War (1914-1918).

1.1 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE IDEA OF THE NATION

- In the 18th century, French society was quite feudal in character and the king exercised complete control. The kingdom was divided into three classes or estates -The First Estate of Clergy, the Second Estate of Nobility who enjoyed all the luxuries and privileges. The Third Estate comprising of the peasantry, city workers and the middle class; they were heavily burdened with taxes.

- Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette’s luxurious lifestyles had emptied the treasury and made the country bankrupt. Louis XVI was forced to call a meeting of representatives of the three estates in 1789. He wanted to gain approval for new tax law. Here the third estate demanded equality in taxation and abolition of special privileges enjoyed by the first two estates. It declared itself a National Assembly and took over the sovereign power from the Emperor. The historic French document, ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen’ was adopted. It was later embodied as the preamble in the French Constitution of 1791.

- The French revolutionaries brought in different measures and practices that helped to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the concept of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.

- The revolutionaries also declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate the people of Europe from despotism and help other people of Europe to become nations.
- With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to carry the ideals of nationalism abroad. The Napoleonic Wars began in 1789 and lasted for about 15 years leading to the formation of the French Republic. The French Revolution tore down the medieval structures of Europe and brought in, new ideas.
- Napoleon introduced many of the reforms in other territories that were already introduced in France. However, through a return to monarchy Napoleon did, destroy democracy in France, but he introduced revolutionary administrative reforms, making the system rational and efficient. The Civil Code of 1804
– usually known as the Napoleonic Code brought many reforms.

1.2 THE MAKING OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

- The ideas of national unity in early 19th century Europe was closely associated with the ideology of liberalism. The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free.
- For the new middle classes in Europe, liberalism meant freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.
- Politically, it emphasized the concept of government by consent.
- After the French Revolution, liberalism meant the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and representative government through parliament.
- The liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property.
- However, equality before the law did not stand for universal suffrage. The right to vote and to get elected was granted exclusively to property-owning men. Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights.
- Only for a brief period under the Jacobins did all adult males enjoy suffrage. However, the Napoleonic Code went back to limited suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor, subject to the authority of fathers and husbands. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries women and non-propertied men organized opposition movements demanding equal political rights.

New Conservatism post 1815

After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the spirit of conservatism became strong. They believed that traditional institutions like the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family
– should be preserved. However, they retained many of the changes initiated by Napoleon. Such as modernization of the army, the bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism and serfdom as it could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.
- In 1815, the European powers – Britain,Russia, Prussia and Austria – who had collectively defeated Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe.
- The main motive was to undo the changes that were initiated by Napoleon.

1.3 THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS: 1830-1848

Giuseppe Mazzini (1805- 1972) was a revolutionary. He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. As a young man of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He founded two more underground societies, - Young Italy in Marseilles,Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and German states.
- He believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind.
- According to him Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms.He believed that unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.
- Following his model, secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.
- His opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics scared the conservatives.
He was described by Metternich as ‘the most dangerous enemy’ of the social order.
‘When France sneezes,’ Metternich (1773-1859) once remarked, ‘the rest of Europe catches cold.’ Metternich had witnessed both Napoleonic Era and the French Revolution. He had seen how events in France affected the rest of Europe. Once Napoleon took control of France, rest of the Europe was automatically affected by it. When Napoleon became the emperor of France, he brought changes to all of Europe. Similarly, during the French Revolution, whole of Europe felt the good and bad impacts of it. This metaphor was basically used to describe how when anything happens in France it has an impact on all of Europe.

Romanticism

Culture and art also played an important role in creating the idea of the nation. Romanticism, became a cultural movement which helped to develop a particular kind of nationalist sentiment.
-Romantic artists generally focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
- They criticized reasoning and the scientific temper.
- It helped in creating a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.
- They collected and spread folklore in vernacular language even amongst the illiterate. This was particularly true of Poland, which had been partitioned at the end of the eighteenth century by – Russia, Prussia and Austria.
- Art, poetry, music and stories of rich heritage shaped nationalistic feelings.

Romantics such as the German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation (volksgeist) was popularized.

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt

- The 1830s were years of great economic hardship all over Europe.
- The population had risen and there was rampant unemployment.
- Industrial revolution in England had led to an oversupply of machine made low priced goods particularly textiles, which was a common cottage industry. Hand made goods could not compete with machine made goods.
- Peasants were over-burdened with feudal dues because of bad harvests.
- This made a large number of rural population which included weavers and peasants to migrate to the urban areas. This made the cities even more over crowded.
- In the year 1848 high food prices and shortages and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads and Louis Philippe was forced to flee.

In 1845, weavers in Silesia had led a revolt against contractors who supplied them raw material and gave them orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced their payments.
As reported by Wilhelm Wolff a journalist - in a Silesian villages of about 18000 people whose main occupation was cotton weaving, the workers suffered extreme misery.

On 4 June at 2 p.m. a large crowd of weavers emerged from their homes and marched in pairs up to the mansion of their contractor demanding higher wages. They were treated with scorn and threats. Following this, a group of them forced their way into the house, smashed its elegant windowpanes, furniture, porcelain etc. Another group broke into the storehouse and plundered it of supplies of cloth which they tore to shreds. The contractor fled with his family and by next day came back with the army. In the exchange that followed, eleven weavers were shot.

The Revolution of the Liberals

- Along with the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants and workers in many European countries in the year 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle classes
was also under way.
- In the parts of Europe where independent nation-states did not yet exist – such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification.
- They took advantage of the growing popular unrest all over Europe, to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution,
freedom of the press and freedom of association.
As the French monarchy was dethroned in 1848, the liberal middle class aspired for a constitution and national unification. Serfdom and bonded labor was abolished.
In 1848 in Germany middle class voted 831 representatives. The Frankfurt parliament sat in a church that drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
However, Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia rejected the offer and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
As the social base of the parliament shifted to the middle class, who resisted the demand of the workers and artisans resulting in loss of their support and the assembly was disbanded with the help of the army.
Political associations were formed by women with the aim to gain political rights. This however was some years away.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MOVEMENTS IN POLAND, HUNGARY, ITALY, GERMANY AND GREECE

Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into Kingdom, duchies and cantons. These divisions were having their autonomous rulers. Poland
- As you know Poland had been divided and shared by Russia, Prussia and Austria. Even though Poland no longer existed as an independent territory, national feelings were kept alive by the ‘romantics’ through music and language. The sentiments of the national struggle were kept alive through operas, music, and folk dances which became nationalist symbols.

- After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed. In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place, which was brutally crushed. After this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a means of protest and resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction. As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian. The use of Polish language came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

Hungary

- In the Austro-Hungarian Empire – the revolution was led by the liberal middle classes. They demanded the formation of a constitution and national unification. They also demanded freedom of the press and freedom of association.
- In the years after 1848, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815. Thus, serfdom and bonded labor were abolished both in the Habsburg dominions.
The Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.

THE MAKING OF GERMANY AND ITALY

Unification of Italy

In the 18th century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the center was ruled by the Pope and the southern regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain.
The Italian language too had different regional and local variations.
Many revolutionaries like Giuseppe Mazzini and Garibaldi and their secret society “Young Italy” kept spreading the idea of an independent and unified Italy and put together a programme for unification of Italy.
From 1849 the King of Piedmont-Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel II, took an active role in this unification. It is to be noted that the Italian unification was headed by a monarch. Under the leadership of Emmanuel, Prime Minister Cavour, ousted the Austrians form Lombardy,Tuscany, Modena, etc.
Garibaldi led the revolt and liberated Sicily and Naples. He handed over the charge of the two states to Emmanuel and declared him the King of Italy. Later, Rome and Venetia joined the federation of Italian states. The process of unification of Italy began with the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and ended with the Franco-Prussian War in 1871.
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-82) is perhaps the most celebrated of Italian freedom fighters. He was a sailor in the merchant navy. In 1833 he met Mazzini and joined the ‘Young Italy Movement’ and participated in a republican uprising in Piedmont in 1834. The uprising was suppressed and Garibaldi had to flee to South America, where he lived in exile till 1848. In 1854, he supported king Victor Emmanuel II, in his efforts to unify the Italian states.
Garibaldi led the famous Red Shirt Movement. In 1867, Garibaldi led an army of volunteers to Rome to fight the last obstacle in the unification of Italy, the Papal States where a French garrison was stationed. The Red Shirts proved to be no match for the combined French and Papal troops. It was only in 1870 when, during the war with Prussia, France withdrew its troops from Rome that the Papal States were finally joined to Italy.

Unification of Germany

The modern state placed great emphasis on modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems.
After Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, many Germans wanted an independent Germany. The King of Prussia, Kaiser William I, chose Prime Minister Bismarck to unify Germany under
the rule of Prussia.
Bismarck was a fearless leader and believed in the urgent need for unification in Germany. He started with the modernization of the army, defying the parliament in collecting taxes. His policy came to be known as ‘Blood and Iron’ policy and earned him the nickname of the ‘Iron Chancellor’. It can be said that unification of Germany happened because of the German Army.
Bismarck was able to keep Italy, Russia ( and Napoleon III, of France till the end) out of war by diplomacy and negotiations. With the improved army, Bismarck encouraged the German population of Schleswig and Holstein to revolt against their ruler. In 1864, Bismarck joined hands with Austria against Denmark. Prussia also defeated Austria and formed the North German Confederation.
The unification of Germany was complete under Kaiser William I in 1871. Soon Germany emerged as the leading power in Europe, building a colonial empire to further German economic interest and increase German influence in the world.
The Grimm Brothers: The brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm were born in the German city of Hanau in 1785 and 1786 respectively. While both of them studied law, they soon developed an interest in collecting old folktales. They spent six years travelling from village to village. These folktales were popular both among children and adults. In 1812, they published their first collection of tales. Subsequently, both the brothers became active in liberal politics, especially the movement for freedom of the press. In the meantime, they also published a 33-volume dictionary of the German language. The Grimm brothers also saw French domination as a threat to German culture, and believed that the folktales they had collected were expressions of a pure and authentic German spirit. They considered their projects of collecting folktales and developing the German language as part of the wider effort to oppose French domination and create a German national identity

Greece

- In the late eighteenth century, an increasing number of people in Greece began to learn about and discuss the high points of the Greek history and independence in ancient times. Their desire for political autonomy was triggered by the romantic ideals of their past history and there was the sense of winning back their independence. One of the organizations formed was the Filiki Eteria, a secret organization formed by merchants in Odessa as early as 1814. Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.
- The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821. Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.

Greek Culture

- Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilization and mobilized public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire. The English poet Lord Byron organized funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.
After 1871 the Balkan region comprising of modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia- Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro was under the grip of serious nationalist sentiment. A large part of the Balkans was under the Ottoman Empire. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans and the breakdown of the Ottoman Empire made this region politically very active.

The rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win back their long-lost independence. During this period, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military might. These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan problem unfolded. Each power – Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary – was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.

The Strange case of Britain

- Before the eighteenth century the nation of Britain did not exist. The people inhabiting the area had their own ethnic identities, such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. These ethnic
groups had strong cultural traditions and were politically powerful.
- The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a protracted conflict, became the instrument through which a nation-state, with England at its core, was formed.

- The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland, led to the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’. In this union England was able to impose its influence on Scotland, through the English members of the parliament. Growth of a British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions were systematically subdued.
- The Catholic clans of the Scottish Highlands were brutally repressed whenever they attempted to assert their independence. They were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and many of them were forcibly driven out of their homeland. ff Ireland met with a similar fate. Ireland was divided between Catholics and Protestants. The English sided with, the Protestants of Ireland and established their dominance over a largely Catholic country.
The revolts of the Catholics against British dominance were suppressed. The revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), was suppressed and Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801. The ‘British nation’ was forged by forcible propagation of English culture. The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English language – were actively promoted and the other nations survived only as subordinate partners in the union.

1.5 VISUALIZING THE NATION

Use of Allegory

It is a story, poem, or picture that can be interpreted to reveal a hidden meaning, typically a moral or political. An abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy, freedom, liberty) can be expressed through a person or a thing. An allegorical story has two meanings, one literal and one symbolic.
Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries found a way out by personifying a nation. In other words, they represented a country as if it were a person. Nations were then portrayed as female figures. The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in real life; rather it sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form. That is, the female figure became an allegory of the nation. 

1.6 NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM

As the 19th century was entered its last quarter nationalism became diluted. It no longer retained the idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment of the first half of the century, but became a narrow creed with limited ends. The nationalist groups became more and more intolerant of each other and were always ready to go to war. In addition the major European powers, also manipulated the nationalist aspirations of peoples to further their own imperialist aspirations.
The Balkans had the most serious nationalist tension in Europe after 1871. This was a region of geographical and ethnic disparity. This comprised of modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia (Republic of North Macedonia), Croatia (Republic of Croatia), Bosnia- Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.
The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism and the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive. In the 19th century. Though the Ottoman Empire had tried to strengthen itself by modernization and internal reforms it met with little success. One by one, its European nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence.
The people claimed independence, based political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers. The struggles of the rebellious nationalities was thought of as attempts to win back their long-lost independence.
The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others. During this period Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry over trade and colonies as well as naval and military power.Each power – Russia, Germany, England, Austro- Hungary – was keen on countering the hold of other powers over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War. The anti-imperial movements that developed were nationalist, in the sense that they all struggled to form independent nation-states, and were inspired by a sense of collective national unity. A common factor was its opposition to imperialism. European ideas of nationalism were nowhere replicated and the people developed their own specific variety of nationalism. But the idea that societies should be organized into ‘nation-states’ came to be accepted as natural and universal.

Important Years

1789 : French revolution
1797 : Invasion of Italy by Napoleon
1804 : Implementation of Napoleonic code in different countries
1814-15 : Defeat of Napoleon and Treaty of Vienna
1832 : Treaty of Constantinople granting of Greek independence
1834 : Custom union or Zollverein formed in Prussia to abolish internal tariff
1848 : Artisans and industrial workers revolt in Europe against hardship. Middle class demands constitution and representative government
1858 : Cavour formed an alliance with France
1859-70 : Unification of Italy
1866 -1871 : Unification of Germany
1871 : King William I, proclaimed emperor of Germany

Important words and terms

Absolutist : Literally, a government or system of rule that has no restraints on the power exercised.In history, the term refers to a form of monarchical government that was centralized, militarized and repressive.

Utopian : Vision of a society that is so ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist.

Plebiscite : A direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal.

Nation-state : (as opposed to multinational dynastic empires) in which the majority of its citizens, and not only its rulers, came to develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent. This commonness did not exist from time immemorial; it was forged through struggles, through the actions of leaders and the common people.

Jacobin Clubs : These were the most influential political clubs during the French Revolution. The clubs grew in various parts of the world but mostly in Europe.
(The Jacobin Club of Mysore was the first Revolutionary Republican organization to be formed in India. It was founded in 1794 by French
Republican officers with the support of Tipu Sultan.
He planted a Liberty Tree and declared himself Citizen Tipu. The British regarded the link up of Revolutionary Jacobin forces and Indian resistance as an extremely dangerous development.)

Civil Code of 1804 : also known as the Napoleonic Code – It did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property. This Code was also implemented in other countries exported under French control.
Habsburg Empire : The empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary.

Liberalism : Derived from Latin root liber, meaning free. For the new middle classes liberalism meant freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. Politically, it emphasized the concept of government by consent. Since the French Revolution, liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and representative government through parliament. Nineteenth-century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property.

Suffrage : The right to vote to elect one’s representative.

Elle : A measure of cloth which had different value in different regions of Europe. It was replaced by standard weight and measure to facilitate trade.

Zollverein : Formed in 1834, it was a customs union at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two. It helped to bind the German economy together.

Conservatism : A political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition, established institutions and customs, and preferred gradual development to quick change.
Treaty of Vienna of 1815 : In 1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria – who had collectively defeated Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe. Hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich, the delegates drew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the object of undoing most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars. The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to power, and France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.

Romanticism : A cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally criticized the glorification of reason and science and focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.

Volksgeist : The true spirit of a nation.

Feminism : Awareness of women’s rights and interests based on the belief of the social, economic and political equality of the genders.

Ideology : System of ideas reflecting a particular social and political vision.

Junkers : Large landowners in Prussia.

Ethnic : Relates to a common racial, tribal, or cultural origin or background that a community identifies with or claims.

Marianne : The female allegory the national symbol of the French republic.

Germania : The female allegory of the German nation.

Extra Answer Questions :

Question. Define the term ‘nation- state’: OR Explain any three features of the ‘Nation State’ that emerged in Europe in the twentieth century. 
Answer : 1. A nation-state was one in which the majority of its citizens, and not only its rulers, came to develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent.
2. This commonness did not exist from time immemorial; it was forged through struggles, through the actions of leaders and the common people.
3. The concept and practices of a modern state, in which a centralized power exercised sovereign control over a clearly defined territory, had been developing over a long period of time in Europe.

Question. What did the French revolutionaries do to create a sense of collective identity among the French People?
OR
“From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people”. Explain with suitable examples.
Answer : 1. The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
2. A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
3. The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
4. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
5. A centralized administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.
6. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
7. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.

Question. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make administrative system more efficient in territories ruled by him? Describe any four such changes. 
OR
“Napoleon had destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary principles”. Justify this statement. 
Answer : 1. The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code – did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
2. Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
3. In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed.
4. Transport and communication systems were improved. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new freedom.
5. Uniform laws, standardized weights and measures, and a common national currency were introduced.

Question. “In the areas were Napoleon conquered, the reactions of the local populations to French rule were mixed”. Why?
Answer : 1. Initially, in many places such as Holland and Switzerland, as well as in certain cities like Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty.
2. But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility, as it became clear that the new administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom.
3. Increased taxation, censorship, forced recruitment into the French armies seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes. Gradually, all these regions joined hands with those powers that were against Napoleon.

Question. How was the Habsburg Empire a patchwork of many different regions and peoples in Europe? Explain. 
Answer : 1. It included the Alpine regions – the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland – as well as Bohemia, where the aristocracy was predominantly German-speaking.
2. It also included the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects.
3. In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish. Besides these three dominant groups, there also lived within the boundaries of the empire, a mass of subject peasant peoples – Bohemians and Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south, and Roumans to the east in Transylvania.
4. Such differences did not easily promote a sense of political unity. The only tie binding these diverse groups together was a common allegiance to the emperor.

Question. Analyse the social and political conditions of the landed aristocracy and the peasants living in Europe in the mid-18th century.
Answer : 1. Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions.
2. They owned estates in the countryside and also town-houses. They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and in high society.
3. Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. But they were few in number.
4. The majority of the population was made up of the peasantry. To the west, the bulk of the land was cultivated by tenants and small owners, while in Eastern and Central Europe the pattern of landholding was characterized by vast estates which were cultivated by serfs.

Question. How did the new middle class people of western and central Europe influence the growth of nationalism?
                                                                  OR
What were the features of the middle class in Europe that emerged in cities due to industrialization?
Answer : 1. In Western parts of central Europe, the growth of industrialization and trade meant the growth of towns and emergence of commercial class.
2. In England the industrialization began in 18th century but in the continent it began only in 19th century.
3. The new social group developed consisted of industrialists, traders, professionals, called middle class.
4. It was among this middle class the idea of national unity developed first in Europe.

Question. What did liberal nationalism stand for in the early 19th century?
                                                                  ​​​​​​​OR
“Equality before law did necessarily stand for universal suffrage in France after the revolution”. Explain with suitable examples. 
                                 ​​​​​​​                                 OR
What are the political, social and economic ideals supported by the liberals in Europe? 
Answer : 1. Ideas of national unity in early 19th century Europe was closely associated to the ideology of liberalism.
2. For the new middle class, liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. Liberals demanded for universal adult suffrage.
3. Politically it emphasized the concept of the government by consent. Since French revolution, liberalism has stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges.
4. In 19th century, liberals stressed the inviolability of private property. In economic field, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of government imposed restrictions on the movement of goods.

Question. What is conservatism and point out the features of it that existed in Europe after the Napoleonic wars?
Answer : 1. Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the spirit of conservatism drove European governments. They believed in established traditional institutions of society such as monarchy, Church etc.
2. Most of the conservatives didn’t propose a return of the society to the prerevolutionary days. They realized that modernization could strengthen Monarchy.
3. Modernization could make state power more effective and strong.
4. A modern army, bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, and abolition of feudalism could strengthen the autocratic monarchies in Europe.

Question. Discuss the objectives of the Treaty of Vienna 1815. 
Answer : 1. In 1815, representatives of European powers –Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria – who had collectively defeated Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe. The Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich hosted the congress. The main intention of the Congress of Vienna was to restore those monarchies that were overthrown by napoleon, and to create a new conservative order in Europe.
2. They drew up a treaty with the object of undoing most of the changes that had come about in Europe during Napoleonic wars.
3. A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to stop French expansion. Russia was given parts of Poland and Prussia was given a part of Saxony.
4. Thus the kingdom of the Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in the north and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south.
5. The Bourbon dynasty, which had been disposed of power during the French revolution, was restored to power, and France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.

Question. Explain the beliefs of conservative regimes set up in 1815.
Answer : 1. Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. They did not tolerate criticism and dissent, and sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments.
2. Most of them imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers, books, plays and songs and reflected the ideas of liberty and freedom associated with the French Revolution.
3. The memory of the French Revolution continued to inspire the liberals.
4. One of the major issues taken up by the liberal-nationalists, who criticized the new conservative order, was freedom of the press.

Question. Write a short note on the role of Giuseppe Mazzini.
Answer : 1. Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary who wanted to unify Italy into one nation on the basis of language.
2. He joined the secret society of the Carbonary and later founded two secret societies called ‘Young Italy ‘and ‘Young Europe’
3. He believed that Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into single unified republic.
4. Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.

Question. Explain the role of liberals in the Revolutions on Europe in 1930-1848.
Answer : 1. The liberal nationalists belonging to the educated middle class –elite, led these revolutions.
2. The included professors, teachers, clerks, and the members of the commercial middle classes.
3. Liberalism and nationalism came to be increasingly associated with revolutions in many parts of Europe, such as Italian and German states, Ottoman empire etc.
4. In the Upheaval in France I n 1830, the bourbon dynasty was overthrown and a constitutional monarchy was established with Louis Philippe as the head.

Question. ‘When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold.” Who remarked this and why?
Answer : 1. This remark was made by the then Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich who was a staunch conservative.
2. After the revolution in France in 1789, the revolutionary spirit spread to other parts of Europe and the world.
3. The French Revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity had great influence over the people all over the world. Similarly, after the revolution in France in 1830, it sparked revolution in other parts of Europe.

Question. What led to the Greek war of independence of 1821 and point out how did it mobilize the nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe?
Answer : 1. Greece had been a part of Ottoman Empire since 15th century. Influenced by the revolutionary nationalism in Europe, the struggle for independence started by the Greeks in 1821.
2. Nationalist in Europe got support from those Greeks who were living in other parts of Europe in exile and the West European counters who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.
3. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilization and mobilized public opinion to support its struggle for independence from Ottoman Empire.
4. The English poet Lord Byron organized funds and later went on to fight the war where he died of fever in 1824.
5. In 1832 Greeks gained independence. Signed Treaty of Constantinople.

Question. Explain how Romantic imagination played an important role in the development of national feeling?
Answer : 1. Romanticism, a cultural movement that sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment.
2. Romantic artists and poets generally criticized the glorification of reason and science and focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feeling.
3. The effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.
4. English poets William Wordsworth, Lord Byron, German philosopher Johann Gottfried and The French painter Delacroix are a few examples of romantic nationalists.
5. Karol Kurpinski, celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
6. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

Question. Who was Johann Gottfried Herder? What was his opinion about the role of folk art in nation building?
Answer : Johann Gottfried Herder was a German philosopher of 19th century. He claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people-das volk. Folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances popularized the spirit of nation. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation building.

Question. How did local folklore help the growth of national spirit?
                                 ​​​​​​​                OR
Point out the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.
Answer : 1. The development of nationalism did not come about only through wars and territorial expansion but culture played a significant role too.
2. Art, poetry, stories and music helped express and shape nationalist feeling.
3. Folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances popularized the spirit of nation.
4. Vernacular languages and collection of local folklore develop a sense of national feeling among the illiterate. For example Karol Kurpinski celebrated national struggle through his operas and music.

Question. How did language play an important role in developing nationalist sentiments in Europe?
                                 OR
Cite the growth on nationalism in Poland.
Answer : 1. The emphasis of vernacular language played a significant role in carrying out the nationalist message among the large audience who were illiterate.
2. This was especially true in the case of Poland that was mostly under the control of Russia; where the nationalist feeling was kept alive by language and music.
3. In Poland, after the failure of 1831’s revolt against Russia, the clergies used language as a weapon of national resistance.
4. Though prohibited, polish was used for church gatherings and religious instructions.
5. The use of polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

Question. Examine effects of the Great economic hardship of 1830 on Europe.
                                 ​​​​​​​                    OR
Describe in brief the great economic hardships during the 1830 in Europe. 
Answer : 1. The first half of the 19th century saw an enormous increase in the population in Europe. This created a state of unemployment. People from rural areas migrated to cities in search of job and began to live in overcrowded slums.
2. Small producers faced stiff competition from the imports of cheap machine made goods from England.
3. In those parts of Europe where aristocracy was still in power, the peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations. The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread poverty in town and country.

Question. “Food shortage, hunger and hardship led to popular revolts in Europe in 1848” Justify.
Answer : 1. In 1848, food shortage and wide spread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads. French monarch Louise Philippe was forced to flee.
2. The National Assembly proclaimed a Republic and granted suffrage to all adult males above the age of 21 and guaranteed them the right to work.
3. Peasants and workers revolted against the feudal system during these years.
4. E.g.: Silesian weaver’s revolt.
5. The revolt of the poor and the unemployed spread from France to other European countries such as Germany, Italy, Poland, Austria –Hungary etc.

Question. What is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals? What were their demands?
Answer :1. The liberals of educated middle classes led the Revolution of 1848 in France andacross the Europe.
2. The event had brought about the abdication of the monarch and establishment of a republic based on universal male suffrage.
3. In other parts of Europe like Germany, Italy, Poland etc., liberals demanded for constitutionalism with national unification.
4. E.g.: In Germany, liberals assembled in Frankfurt to make a constitution for unified Germany.
5. They pressed for the creation of nation state on parliamentary principles – with a constitution, freedom of press, and freedom of association.

Question. Evaluate the significant development in the ‘Frankfurt Parliament’ in 1848.
Answer : 1. In the German regions, a large number of political associations whose members were middle class professionals, businessmen, and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all German National Assembly. This National Assembly was known as Frankfurt Parliament.
2. On 18th May 1848, 831 elected representatives assembled in the Frankfurt Parliament convened in the church of St. Paul.
3. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a Monarchy subjected to a parliament and offered the Prussian King to be the Constitutional Monarch.
4. Friedrich Wilhelm IV, the King of Prussia rejected this offer and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
5. Gradually, the support base of the assembly eroded and troops were called in andassembly was disbanded

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