CBSE Class 12 Psychology Psychological Disorders Assignment

Question. Identify the symptoms associated with depression and mania.
Answer. Major depressive disorder is defined as a period of depressed mood and/or loss of interest or pleasure in most activities, together with other symptoms which may include change in body weight, constant sleep problems, tiredness, inability to think clearly, agitation, greatly slowed behaviour, and thoughts of death and suicide. Other symptoms include excessive guilt or feelings of worthlessness.

Bipolar I disorder involves both mania and depression, which are alternately present and sometimes interrupted by periods of normal mood. Manic episodes rarely appear by themselves; they usually alternate with depression. Bipolar mood disorders were earlier referred to as manic-depressive disorders. Some examples of types of bipolar and related disorders include Bipolar I Disorder, Bipolar II disorder and Cyclothymic Disorder.

Question. Can a distorted body image lead to eating disorders? Classify the various forms of it.
Answer. Another group of disorders which are of special interest to young people are eating disorders. These include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating. In anorexia nervosa, the individual has a distorted body image that leads her/him to see herself/himself as overweight. Often refusing to eat, exercising compulsively and developing unusual habits such as refusing to eat in front of others, the person with anorexia may lose large amounts of weight and even starve herself/himself to death. In bulimia nervosa, the individual may eat excessive amounts of food, then purge her/ his body of food by using medicines such as laxatives or diuretics or by vomiting. The person often feels disgusted and ashamed when s/he binges and is relieved of tension and negative emotions after purging. In binge eating, there are frequent episodes of out-of-control eating. The individual tends to eat at a higher speed than normal and continues eating till s/he feels uncomfortably full. In fact, large amount of food may be eaten even when the individual is not feeling hungry.

Question. Can a long-standing pattern of deviant behaviour be considered abnormal? Elaborate.
Answer. The first approach views abnormal behaviour as a deviation from social norms. Many psychologists have stated that ‘abnormal’ is simply a label that is given to a behaviour which is deviant from social expectations. Abnormal behaviour, thoughts and emotions are those that differ markedly from a society’s ideas of proper functioning. Each society has norms, which are stated or unstated rules for proper conduct. Behaviours, thoughts and emotions that break societal norms are called abnormal. A society’s norms grow from its particular culture — its history, values, institutions, habits, skills, technology, and arts. Thus, a society whose culture values competition and assertiveness may accept aggressive behaviour, whereas one that emphasises cooperation and family values (such as in India) may consider aggressive behaviour as unacceptable or even abnormal. A society’s values may change over time, causing its views of what is psychologically abnormal to change as well. Serious questions have been raised about this definition. It is based on the assumption that socially accepted behaviour is not abnormal, and that normality is nothing more than conformity to social norms.

Question. What do you understand by the term ‘dissociation’? Discuss its various forms.
Answer. Dissociation can be viewed as severance of the connections between ideas and emotions. Dissociation involves feelings of unreality, estrangement, depersonalisation, and sometimes a loss or shift of identity. Sudden temporary alterations of consciousness that blot out painful experiences are a defining characteristic of dissociative disorders. Conditions included in this are Dissociative Amnesia, Dissociative Identity Disorder, and Depersonalisation/Derealisation Disorder.
Dissociative amnesia is characterised by extensive but selective memory loss that has no known organic cause (e.g., head injury). Some people cannot remember anything about their past. Others can no longer recall specific events, people, places, or objects, while their memory for other events remains intact. A part of dissociative amnesia is dissociative fugue. Essential feature of this could be an unexpected travel away from home and workplace, the assumption of a new identity, and the inability to recall the previous identity. The fugue usually ends when the person suddenly ‘wakes up’ with no memory of the events that occurred during the fugue. This disorder is often associated with an overwhelming stress. Dissociative identity disorder, often referred to as multiple personality, is the most dramatic of the dissociative disorders. It is often associated with traumatic experiences in childhood. In this disorder, the person assumes alternate personalities that may or may not be aware of each other. Depersonalisation/ Derealisation disorder involves a dreamlike state in which the person has a sense of being separated both from self and from reality. In depersonalisation, there is a change of self-perception, and the person’s sense of reality is temporarily lost or changed.

Question. What are phobias? If someone had an intense fear of snakes, could this simple phobia be a result of faulty learning? Analyse how this phobia could have developed.
Answer. People with phobias have irrational fears related to specific objects, people or situations.It is of the following types: Specific Phobias, Social Anxiety Disorder or Social Phobias and Agoraphobia.
Specific phobias are the most commonly occurring type of phobia. This group includes irrational fears such as intense fear of a certain type of animal, or of being in an enclosed space.
According to Social Learning theory
- Both faulty and adaptive behaviours are a result of faulty learning.
- The mechanism of reward and punishment will decide the behaviour will be learned or eliminated
- This phobia can be treated with techniques like systematic desensitisation, modeling or using methodology of behaviour therapy.

Question. Anxiety has been called the “butterflies in the stomach feeling”. At what stage does anxiety become a disorder? Discuss its types.
Answer. We experience anxiety when we are waiting to take an examination, or to visit a dentist, or even to give a solo performance. This is normal and expected and even motivates us to do our task well. On the other hand, high levels of anxiety that is distressing and interferes with effective functioning indicate the presence of an anxiety disorder — the most common category of psychological disorders. Everyone has worries and fears. The term anxiety is usually defined as a diffuse, vague, very unpleasant feeling of fear and apprehension. The anxious individual also shows combinations of the following symptoms: rapid heart rate, shortness of breath, diarrhoea, loss of appetite, fainting, dizziness, sweating, sleeplessness, frequent urination and tremors. There are many types of anxiety disorders.
They include generalised anxiety disorder, which consists of prolonged, vague, unexplained and intense fears that are not attached to any particular object. The symptoms include worry and apprehensive feelings about the future; hypervigilance, which involves constantly scanning the environment for dangers. It is marked by motor tension, as a result of which the person is unable to relax, is restless, and visibly shaky and tense. Another type of anxiety disorder is panic disorder, which consists of recurrent anxiety attacks in which the person experiences intense terror. A panic attack denotes an abrupt surge of intense anxiety rising to a peak when thoughts of particular stimuli are present. Such thoughts occur in an unpredictable manner. The clinical features include shortness of breath, dizziness, trembling, palpitations, choking, nausea, chest pain or discomfort, fear of going crazy, losing control or dying.
People are afraid to travel in a lift or climb to the tenth floor of a building, or refuse to enter a room if s/he saw a lizard. Similarly, people are unable to speak a word of a wellmemorised and rehearsed speech before an audience. These kinds of fears are termed as phobias. People who have phobias have irrational fears related to specific objects, people, or situations. Phobias often develop gradually or begin with a generalised anxiety disorder.
Phobias can be grouped into three main types, i.e. specific phobias, social phobias, and agoraphobia. Specific phobias are the most commonly occurring type of phobia. This group includes irrational fears such as intense fear of a certain type of animal, or of being in an enclosed space. Intense and incapacitating fear and embarrassment when dealing with others characterises social anxiety disorder or social phobia. Agoraphobia is the term used when people develop a fear of entering unfamiliar situations. Many people with agoraphobia are afraid of leaving their home. So their ability to carry out normal life activities is severely limited.
Separation anxiety disorder (SAD) is another type of anxiety disorder. Individuals with separation anxiety disorder are fearful and anxious about separation from attachment figures to an extent that is developmentally not appropriate. Children with SAD may have difficulty being in a room by themselves, going to school alone, are fearful of entering new situations, and cling to and shadow their parents’ every move. To avoid separation, children with SAD may fuss, scream, throw severe tantrums, or make suicidal gestures.

CBSE Class 12 Psychology Chapter 4 Psychological Disorders Objective Type Questions

Question. Galen elaborated on the role of four humours in personal character and temperament.
According to him the material world is made up of four elements
(a) earth, air, sky, water
(b) earth, fire, sky, water
(c) earth, air, fire, water
(d) earth, sky, air, fire
Answer. C

Question. The latest system of clarification of psychological disorder is:
(a) WHO
(c) DSM-III R
(c) DSM-V
(d) ICD-9
Answer. C

Question. Developing a fear of entering unfamiliar situation is known as: 
(a) panic disorder
(b) compulsive disorder
(c) agoraphobia
(d) conversion disorder
Answer. C

Question. People unable to prevent themselves from repeatedly carrying out a set of actions are affected by:
(a) manic-depressive disorder
(b) panic disorder
(c) somatoform disorders
(d) obsessive-compulsive disorder
Answer. D

Question. Psychological difficulties and complaints of physical symptoms having no biological cause are known as
(a) manic-depressive disorders
(b) panic disorders
(c) somatoform disorders
(d) obsessive-compulsive disorders
Answer. C

Question. Children who have marked difficulties in social interaction and communication, desire for routine and restricted interests are suffering from: 
(a) Alogia
(b) Impulsivity
(c) Hyperactivity
(d) Autism
Answer. D

Question. An individual reporting loss of part or some bodily functions is showing signs of:
(a) dissociative disorder
(b) panic disorder
(c) mood disorder
(d) conversion disorder
Answer. D

Question. Dissociative amnesia is characterized by an unexpected travel away from home and workplace, the assumption of a new identity and the inability to recall the previous identity. (True/False)
Answer. Fals

Question. Person remains motionless and silent for long stretches of time is called_____________. (catatonic stupor/catatonic rigidity)
Answer. Catatonic stupor

Question. DSM (V) is therapy to treat neurotic patients. (True/False)
Answer. False 

Question.  _____________ means ‘away from the normal’.
Answer. Abnormal

Question.  _____________ are the standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score on the test to the scores of others who have taken the test.
Answer. Norms

Question. Ritu’s young son works in a call centre. Inspite of knowing his odd hours of returning,she continues to have prolonged, vague and intense fear, accompanied by hyper vigilance, showing a kind of anxiety. Identify the type of anxiety she is suffering from.
Answer. Generalized Anxiety disorder

Question. Samina keeps organizing her cupboard the whole day. Even the thought of somebody messing it, keeps her distracted in class and makes her anxious. Such symptoms are typical of which disorder?
Answer. Obsessive compulsive disorder 

Question. Extreme pain without any identifiable biological symptom is an example of ___________ disorder. 
Answer. Pain/Somatoform

Question. ADHD stands for _____________ of childhood.
Answer. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Question. In conversion disorder, a person has a persistent belief that s/he has a serious illness despite medical reassurance, lack of physical findings and failure to develop the disease. (True/False)
Answer. Fals

CBSE Class 12 Psychology Chapter 4 Psychological Disorders Very Short Answer Questions 

Question. What is meant by well-being? 
Answer. Well-being means to have positive health. Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being, and not merely the absence of disease.

Question. What is exorcism?
Answer. Exorcism is removing the evil that resides in the individual through counter-magic and prayer.

Question. What is interactional approach of psychological disorders?
Answer. In interactional or bio-psycho-social approach, all three factors, viz. biological, psychological and social play important roles in psychological disorders. The biological approach describes that defects in various body and brain processes are linked to many types of maladaptive behaviour. The psychological approach describes that the psychological problems are caused by inadequacies in the way an individual thinks, feels or perceives the world. According to the social approach, psychological conflicts and disturbed interpersonal relationships were the causes of abnormal behaviour.

Question. Why do we classify Psychological Disorders?
Answer. Classifications of Psychological Disorders are useful because they enable users like psychologists, psychiatrists and social workers to communicate with each other about the disorder and help in understanding the causes of the disorders and the processes involved in their development and maintenance.

Question. How does humanistic existential model explain psychological disorders?
Answer. Humanists believe that human beings are born with a natural tendency to be friendly, cooperative and constructive and are driven to self-actualise, i.e. to fulfill this potential for goodness and growth. They further believe that from birth we have total freedom to give meaning to our existence or avoid that responsibility. Those who shrink from this responsibility live empty, inauthentic and dysfunctional lives. 

Question. What is Generalised Anxiety Disorder?
Answer. Generalised Anxiety Disorder consists of prolonged, vague, unexplained and intense fears that are not attached to any particular object. The symptoms include worry and apprehensive feelings about the future, hyper-vigilance, which involves constantly scanning the environment for dangers. In this the person is unable to relax, is restless, visibly shaky and tense.

Question. Explain Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD).
Answer. Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD) is an internalising disorder unique to children where the child expresses excessive anxiety or panic at being separated from their parents. Symptoms are: The children have difficulty being in a room by themselves, going to school alone, are fearful of entering new situations, and cling to and shadow their parents’ every move. They may fuss, scream, throw severe tantrums or make suicidal gestures.

Question. Distinguish between Obsessive and Compulsive behaviour giving examples.
OR
Explain obsessive compulsive disorder. 
Answer. Obsessive Behaviour is the inability to stop thinking about a particular idea or topic. They are usable to control preoccupation with specific ideas. The person involved, often finds these thoughts to be unpleasant and shameful. Compulsive behaviour is the need to perform certain behaviours over and over again. They are unable to prevent themselves from repeatedly carrying out a particular act or series of acts that affect their ability to carry out normal activities. It involves acts such as counting, ordering, checking, touching and washing.

Question. What are Delusions?
Answer. Delusions are false beliefs held on inadequate grounds. For example, delusions of grandeur in which people believe themselves to be specially empowered persons.

CBSE Class 12 Psychology Chapter 4 Psychological Disorders Short Answer Questions-I 

Question. State the salient features of dissociative amnesia. 
Answer. Dissociative Amnesia involves memory loss that has no organic cause (e.g. head injury).Some people cannot remember anything about their past while others cannot recall specific events, people, places or objects while their memory for other events remains intact.

Question. What are Depressive Disorders? What are the factors predisposing towards depression?
Answer. Depression covers a variety of negative moods and behavioural changes. Major Depressive Disorder involves a depressed mood and a loss of interest or pleasure in most activities. Symptoms include change in body weight, constant sleep problems, tiredness, inability to think clearly, agitation, greatly slowed behaviour and thoughts of death and suicide. The factors predisposing towards depression are heredity, age, gender, negative life events and lack of social support. Women are at risk during young adulthood while men are at risk in middle age. Also, women in comparison to men are more likely to report a depressive disorder.

Question. What are Mood Disorders? Discuss in brief the types of mood disorders.
OR
Explain bipolar mood disorder? 
Answer. Bipolar disorder involves both mania and depression, which are alternately present and sometimes interrupted by periods of normal mood. Bipolar mood disorders were earlier referred to as manic-depressive disorders. Some examples of types of bipolar and related disorders include Bipolar I Disorder, Bipolar II Disorder and Cyclothymic Disorder.
(i) Bipolar I Disorder or HyperMania in which a person experiences a full manic episode and may or may not experience a major depressive episode.
(ii) Bipolar II Disorder or HypoMania in which a person may experience a less severe manic episode and a major depressive episode.
(iii) Cyclothymic Disorder which is a mild mood disorder with symptoms similar to Bipolar II Disorder.

Question. Explain the forms of eating disorders associated with distorted body image.
OR
Which disorder is the cause of distorted body image? Explain its various forms.
OR
Describe Feeding and Eating disorders.
Answer. Children show eating disorders which are of the following three types:
(i) Anorexia Nervosa: In this, the individuals have a distorted body image that leads to consider themselves as overweight. They refuse to eat especially, in front of others,
exercise compulsively and lose large amounts of weight and even starve themselves to death.
(ii) Bulimia Nervosa: In this, the individual may eat excessive amounts of food, then purge his/her body of food by using medicines or by vomiting. The person feels disgusted and ashamed when he or she binges and is relieved of tension and negative emotions after purging.
(iii) Binge Eating: In this, there are frequent episodes of out-of-control eating. Large amount of food is eaten even when the individual is not feeling hungry.

Question. State the range of IQ with different levels of Intellectual Disability.
Answer. The range of IQ of children with intellectual disability are Mild (IQ range 55-70) Moderate (IQ range 35-40 to 50-55) Severe (IQ range 20-25 to 35-40) and Profound (IQ range below 20-25).

CBSE Class 12 Psychology Chapter 4 Psychological Disorders Short Answer Questions-II 

Question. Describe any two factors underlying abnormal behaviour.
Answer.
(i) Biological Factors: Biological factors such as faulty genes, endocrine imbalances, malnutrition and injuries interfere with normal development and functioning of the human body. When an electrical impulse reaches a neuron ending, the nerve ending is stimulated to release a chemical, called a neuro-transmitter. Abnormal activity by certain neuro-transmitters can lead to specific psychological disorders. Anxiety disorders have been linked to low activity of the neurotransmitter gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), schizophrenia to excess activity of dopamine and depression to low activity of serotonin.
(ii) Genetic Factors: Genetic factors have been linked to mood disorders, schizophrenia and mental retardation. No single gene is responsible for a psychological disorder.Many genes combine to bring about various dysfunctional behaviours and emotional reactions.

Question. Define Phobia with its types.
Answer. People with Phobias have irrational fears related to specific objects, people or situations.
They are of the following three types:
(i) Specific Phobias: This includes irrational fears such as intense fear of a certain type of animal or if being in an enclosed space
(ii) Social Anxiety Disorder or Social Phobias: This involves intense and incapacitating fear and embarrassment when dealing with others.
(iii) Agoraphobia: In this, people develop a fear of entering into unfamiliar situations, e.g., they are afraid of leaving their home.

Question. How can suicide be prevented?
Answer. Suicide can be prevented by:
(i) Changing sleeping and eating habits.
(ii) Reducing withdrawal from friends, family and regular activities.
(iii) Avoiding violent actions, rebellious behaviour and running away.
(iv) Avoiding drug or alcohol abuse.
(v) Preventing marked personality change.
(vi) Reducing persistent boredom.
(vii) Improving concentration.
(viii) Taking interest in pleasurable activities.

Question. Describe the sub-types of schizophrenia.
Answer. The sub-types of schizophrenia and their characteristics are:
(i) Paranoid type: Preoccupation with delusions or auditory hallucinations; no disorganised speech or behaviour or inappropriate affect.
(ii) Disorganised type: Disorganised speech and behaviour; inappropriate or flat affect; no catatonic symptoms.
(iii) Catatonic type: Extreme motor immobility; excessive motor activity; extreme negativism (i.e., resistance to instructions) or mutism (i.e., refusing to speak).
(iv) Undifferentiated type: Does not fit into any of the sub-types but meets the symptom criteria.
(v) Residual type: Has experienced at least one episode of schizophrenia; no positive symptoms but shows negative symptoms.

Question. Elucidate the difference in various areas of functioning at different levels of intellectual disability.
Answer. The characteristics of children with different levels of intellectual disability.

Question. Describe the different types of aggressive behaviours exhibited by children.
Answer. (i) Verbal aggression (i.e. name-calling, swearing)
(ii) Physical aggression (i.e. hitting, fighting)
(iii) Hostile aggression (i.e. directed at inflicting injury to others)
(iv) Proactive aggression (i.e. dominating and bullying others without provocation).

CBSE Class 12 Psychology Chapter 4 Psychological Disorders Long Answer Questions 

Question.Describe the historical background behind abnormal behaviour.
Answer. The various approaches to the causes of abnormal behaviour are:
(i) Abnormal behaviour is explained by the operation of supernatural and magical forces such as evil spirits (bhoot-pret) or the devil (shaitan).
(ii) Biological or organic approach: Defects in various body and brain processes are linked to many types of maladaptive behaviour.
(iii) Psychological approach: Psychological problems are caused by inadequacies in the way an individual thinks, feels or perceives the world.
(iv) Organismic approach: Socrates viewed disturbed behaviour as arising out of conflicts between emotion and reason. Galen elaborated four humours in personal character and temperament. According to him, the material world was made up of four elements, viz. earth, air, fire and water which combined to form four essential body fluids, viz. blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm. Each of these fluids are responsible for a different temperament. Imbalances between these humours were believed to cause various disorders. This is similar to the notion of three doshas of vat, pitta and kapha in Ayurvedic texts.
(v) In the Middle ages demonology, the belief that the people with mental problems were evil and superstition gained importance.
(vi) During the Renaissance period, psychological conflicts and disturbed interpersonal relationships were the causes of abnormal behaviour.
(vii) The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were known as the age of reason and enlightenment. During this period there was a reform movement during which there was a de-institutionalisation of the mentally ill and placed emphasis on providing community care for recovered mentally ill individuals.

Question. What do you understand by the term ‘Dissociation’? Explain the types of Dissociative Disorders. 
Answer. Dissociation involves feelings of unreality, estrangement, depersonalisation and a loss of shift of identity. It is of the following four types:
(i) Dissociative Amnesia: This involves memory loss that has no organic cause (e.g. head injury). Some people cannot remember anything about their past while others cannot recall specific events, people, places or objects while their memory for other events remains intact.
A part of Dissociative Amnesia is Dissociative Figure. In this the patient travels away from home and workplace assuming a new identity and inability to recall the previous identity. The fugue ends when the person suddenly ‘wakes up’ with no memory of the events that occurred during the fugue.
(ii) Dissociative Identity Disorder: In this disorder, the person assumes alternate personalities that may or may not be aware of each other. It is often associated with traumatic experiences in childhood.
(iii) Depersonalisation/Derealisation disorder: This involves a dreamlike state in which the person has a sense of being separated both from self and from reality. In this there is a change of self-perception, and the person’s sense of reality is temporarily lost or changed.

Question. What are the causes of suicide? How can it be prevented? Describe the various ways to strengthen students’ self-esteem.
Answer. Suicide is a result of complex interface of biological, genetic, psychological, sociological, cultural and environmental factors. Those having mental disorders like suffering from depression and consuming alcohol, going through natural disasters, experiencing violence, abuse or loss and isolation at any stage of life or any previous suicidal attempt are risk factors.
Suicidal behaviour indicate difficulties in problem-solving, stress management and emotional expression.
Suicides are preventable. Measures suggested by WHO are:
(i) Limiting access to the means of suicide.
(ii) Reporting of suicide by media in responsible way
(iii) Bringing in alcohol-related policies
(iv) Early identification, treatment and care of people at risk
(v) Training health workers in assessing and managing for suicide
(vi) Care for people who attempted suicide and providing community support

In order to prevent suicide we need to identify students in distress, those adolescents who show an unexpected or striking change in performance or attendance. The following behaviour should be taken seriously:
(i) Lack of interest in common activities
(ii) Declining grades
(iii) Decreasing efforts
(iv) Misbehavior in the classroom
(v) Mysterious or repeated absence
(vi) Smoking, drinking or drug abuse

Strengthening the self-esteem of those students who are in distress helps in coping adequately and for this the following approaches are useful:
(i) Accentuating positive life experiences to develop positive identity which increases confidence in self
(ii) Providing opportunities for development of physical, social and vocational skills
(iii) Establishing a trustful communication
(iv) Goals for the students should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, to be completed within a relevant time frame.

Question. Describe Schizophrenic Disorders.
Answer. Schizophrenia refers to a group of psychotic disorders in which personal, social and occupational functioning deteriorate as a result of disturbed thought processes, strange perceptions, unusual emotional states and motor abnormalities. The symptoms of schizophrenia are grouped into three categories:
(i) Positive symptoms: In this, there are excesses of thought, emotion and behaviour. People develop delusions which is a false belief held on inadequate grounds. These can be of the following types:
(a) Delusions of persecution: People with this delusion believe that they are being plotted against, spied on, slandered, threatened, attacked or deliberately victimized.
(b) Delusions of reference: In this, people attach special and personal meaning to the actions of others or to objects and events.
(c) Delusions of grandeur: In this, people believe themselves to be specially empowered persons. They may believe that they are the Prime Minister or President of India or even God and hence can control the weather.
(d) Delusions of control: In this, people believe that their thoughts, feelings and actions are controlled by others. People with schizophrenia may not be able to think logically and may speak in peculiar ways. These formal thought disorders make communication extremely difficult. These include rapidly shifting from one topic to another so that the normal structure of thinking is muddled and becomes illogical, loosening of associations (derailment), inventing new words or phrases (neologisms) and persistent and inappropriate repetition of the same thoughts (preservation).
Schizophrenics have hallucinations, i.e., perceptions that occur in the absence of external stimuli, this is of the following types:
(a) Auditory hallucinations: Patients hear sounds or voices that speak words, phrases and sentences directly to the patient (second-person hallucination) or talk to one another referring to the patient (third-person hallucination).
(b) Tactile hallucinations: These include tingling and burning sensations.
(c) Somatic hallucinations: This creates a feeling that something is happening inside the body such as a snake crawling inside one’s stomach.
(d) Visual hallucinations: These are vague perceptions of colour or distinct visions of people or objects.
(e) Gustatory hallucinations: In this, food or a drink tastes strange.
(f) Olfactory hallucinations: In this, the person gets a smell of poison or smoke. People with schizophrenia show inappropriate affect, i.e., emotions that are unsuited to the situation.
(ii) Negative symptoms: These include the three As:
(a) Alogia: This includes poverty of speech, i.e. reduction in speech or speech content.
(b) Blunted or Flat effect: People show less anger, sadness, i.e., blunted effect or no emotions at all, a condition called flat effect.
(c) Avolition: In this, the person shows apathy or an inability to start or complete a course of action.
(iii) Psychomotor symptoms: In this, the person shows odd grimaces and gestures. The symptoms may take extreme forms known as catatonia. It is of the following types:
(a) Catatonic stupor: The person remains motionless and silent for long stretches of time.
(b) Catatonic rigidity: In this, the person maintains rigid or upright posture for long hours.
(c) Catatonic posturing: In this, the person assumes awkward or bizarre positions for long periods of time.

Question. What are Substance-related and Addictive Disorders?
Answer. Addictive behaviour involves excessive intake of high calorie food resulting in extreme obesity or the abuse of substances such as alcohol or cocaine. Substance related and addictive disorders include disorders relating to maladaptive behaviours resulting from regular and consistent use of substance. These disorders include problems associated with the use and abuse of alcohol, cocaine, tobacco and opiods which alter the way people think, feel and behave. The most frequently used substances are the following: Alcohol: People who abuse alcohol drink large amounts regularly and rely on it to help them face difficult situations. Eventually, the drinking interferes with their social behaviour and ability to think and work. Their bodies then build up a tolerance for alcohol and they need to drink even greater amounts to feel its effects. They also experience withdrawal responses when they stop drinking. Alcohol destroys millions of families, social relationships and careers. Intoxicated drivers are responsible for many road accidents. It also has serious effects on the children of persons with this disorder. These children have high rates of psychological problems, particularly anxiety, depression, phobias and substance-related disorders. Excessive drinking can seriously damage physical health.

Heroin: Heroin intake significantly interferes with social and occupational functioning. Most abusers further develop a dependence on heroin, revolving their lives around the substance, building a tolerance for it, and experiencing a withdrawal reaction when they stop taking it. The most direct danger of heroin abuse is an overdose, which slows down the respiratory centres in the brain, almost paralysing breathing, and in many cases causing death.

Cocaine: Regular use of cocaine may lead to a pattern of abuse in which the person may be intoxicated throughout the day and function poorly in social relationships and at work. It may cause problem in short-term memory and attention. Dependence may develop, so that cocaine dominates the person’s life, more of the drug is needed to get the desired effect and stopping it results in feelings of depression, fatigue, sleep problems, irritability and anxiety. It also has dangerous effects on psychological functioning and physical well-being.

Q1- Explain the concept of 4 Ds. 

Q2- What are the two views on abnormality?

Q3 – What is meant by the term ‘abnormal psychology’? 

Q4- Give the full forms of: 

(i) DSM IV

(ii) ICD 10

(iii) GABA

(iv) PTSD

(v) OCD

(vi) ADHD

(vii) ODD

(viii) SAD

Q5- Discuss the factors underlying abnormal behaviour. 

Q6- Name the neurotransmitters responsible for the following disorders- 

(i) Anxiety disorders

(ii) Schizophrenia

(iii) Depression

Q7- What is diathesis-stress model?