CBSE Class 12 Psychology Chapter 1 Intelligence and Aptitude Notes

FACTS THAT MATTER

• Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people’s characteristics and behaviour patterns.
• Approaches explaining individual differences in psychological functioning.
1. Trait Approach: Personal traits cause change in behaviours. [INTERNAL FACTORS]
2. Situationism is a view which states that situations and circumstances in which one is placed to influence one’s behaviour. [EXTERNAL FACTORS]
3. The situationist perspective views human behaviour relatively more as a result of influence of external (situational) factors than personality traits.

• Assessment:
1. Predict future behaviour-intervention to affect a change in behaviour.
2. First step in understanding a psychological attribute.
• Formal Assessment: Objective, standardized, organized—psychologists are trained in making formal assessment.
• Informal Assessment: It varies from case to case/one assessor to another—open to subjective interpretation.

• Attributes:
1. Attributes chosen for assessment depend upon the purpose, e.g., improvement of a weak student intellectual strengths and weaknesses are measured.
2. An attribute will be said to exist in a person only if it can be measured by using scientific procedures.

• Some Domains of Psychological Attributes

• Assessment Methods

INTELLIGENCE

- Wechsler:
• Definition: The global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with his/her environment.
• Understood intelligence in terms of its functionality, i.e., its value for adaption to the environment.
• Intelligence test most widely used.
- Gardner and Sternberg:
• An intelligent individual not only adapts to the environment, but also actively modifies or shapes it.
• Approaches to Study Intelligence

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

A. Psychometric Approach:

1. Uni/One-Factor Theory (Alfred Binet):
• Definition: The ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well.
• First psychologist who formalized the concept of intelligence in terms of mental operations.
• Differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals.
• Conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be used for solving any or every problem in an individual’s environment.

2. Two-Factor Theory (Charles Spearman) [1927]:
• Employed a statistical method called factor analysis.
• Intelligence consists of a general factor (G-factor) and specific factors (S-factor).
(i) G-Factor: It includes mental operations which are primary and common to all performances.
(ii) S-Factor: It includes specific abilities which allow individuals to excel in their respective domains

3. Theory of Primary Mental Abilities (Louis Thurstone):
(i) Verbal Comprehension (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and ideas).
(ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and accuracy in numerical and computational skills).
(iii) Spatial Relations (visualizing patterns and forms).
(iv) Perceptual Speed (speed in perceiving details).
(v) Word Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly).
(vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling information).
(vii) Inductive Reasoning (deriving general rules from presented facts).

4. Hierarchical Model of Intelligence (Arthur Jensen):
Abilities operates at two levels:
Level I – Associative learning. [output is equal to input, rote memory]
Level II – Cognitive competence. [output is more than input]

5. Structure of Intellect Model (J.P. Guilford) [1988]:
• Classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions—operations, contents and products
(i) Operation: what the respondent does, e.g., cognition, memory retention.
(ii) Contents: the nature of materials or information on which intellectual operations are performed, e.g., visual, auditory.
(iii) Products: the form in which information is processed by the respondent, e.g., relations, systems, transformations.
• Classification includes 6 × 5 × 6 categories—the model has 180 cells.
• Each cell is expected to have at least one (can have more than one) factor or ability and is described in terms of all three dimensions.

B. Information-Processing Approach:

1. Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner):
• Intelligence is not a single entity; distinct types of intelligences exist independent of each other.
• Different types of intelligences interact and work together to find a solution to a problem.
• Studied persons who had shown exceptional abilities in their respective areas and described eight types of intelligence.
(i) Linguistic: The capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s thinking and understand other. Persons high on this ‘word-smart’, e.g., poets and writers.
(ii) Logical-Mathematical: Skills in problem solving, thinking logically and critically and abstract reasoning , e.g., scientists.
(iii) Spatial: The abilities involved in forming, using and transforming mental images (visual images and patterns), e.g., sculptors, painters, architects, interior decorators.
(iv) Musical: The capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical rhythms and patterns.
(v) Bodily-Kinaesthetic: The use of the whole body or portions of it creatively and flexibly for display, construction of products and problem solving, e.g., athletes, dancers, actors.
(vi) Interpersonal: Skill of an individual to understand the needs, motives feelings and behaviours of other people for better understanding and relationship. High among psychologists counsellors politicians.
(vii) INTRA PERSONAL: Refers to the awareness of one’s own feelings, motives, desires, knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to effectively relate to others, e.g., philosophers.
(viii) Naturalistic: Complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world and sensitivity to the features of the natural world, e.g., botanists, zoologists.

2. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg) [1985]:
• Definition: The ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture.
• Three Basic Types of Intelligence:

(i) Componential Intelligence/Analytical Intelligence: The analysis of information to solve problems
Three components:
(a) Knowledge Acquisition—responsible for learning and acquisition of the ways of doing things.
(b) Meta or Higher Order Component—planning concerning what to do and how to do it.
(c) Performance Component—actually doing things .

(ii) Experiential/Creative Intelligence: Using past experiences creatively to solve novel problems.
— Ability to integrate different experiences in an original way to make new discoveries and inventions.
— Quickly find out what information is crucial in a given situation.

(iii) Contextual/Practical Intelligence: The ability to deal with environmental demands encountered on a daily basis—
— may be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’
— easily adapt to their present environment/select a more favourable environment, modify the environment to fit their needs.

3. Planning, Attention–arousal and Simultaneous-Successive (PASS) Model of Intelligence (J.P. Das, Jack Nagliery, Kirby) 
• Intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three neurological systems, called the functional units of brain
• These units are responsible for—

(i) Arousal/Attention:
— Arousal and attention enable a person to process information.
— An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant aspects of a problem.
— Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention and attend to stimuli.
(ii) Simultaneous and Successive Processing:
— Simultaneous: Perceive the relations among various concepts and integrate them into a meaningful pattern for comprehension, e.g., RSPM.
— Successive: Remember all the information serially so that the recall of one leads to the recall of another, e.g., learning of digits, letters.
(iii) Planning:
— Allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a target, and evaluate their effectiveness.
— If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or situation.
• These PASS processes operate on a knowledge base developed either formally (by reading, writing, and experimenting) or informally from the environment.
• These processes are interactive and dynamic in nature; yet each has its own distinctive function.

Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) (Das and Nagliery):
• Battery of tests meant for individuals between 5-18 years of age.
• Consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive functions presumed to be independent of schooling.
• Results of assessment can be used to remedy cognitive deficits of children with learning problems.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE:
The evidence for hereditary influences on intelligence comes mainly from studies on twins and adopted children.

CORRELATION OF INTELLIGENCE

• Separated early in childhood—show considerable similarity in their intellectual, personality and behavioural characteristics.
• Adopted Children—children’s intelligence is more similar to their biological rather than adoptive parents.
• Role of Environment—as children grow in age, their intelligence level tends to move closer to that of their adoptive parents.
• Disadvantaged Children—adopted into families with higher socio-economic status exhibit a large increase in their intelligence scores.
1. Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence while rich nutrition, good family background, and quality schooling increases intelligence.
2. There is a general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of complex interaction of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
3. Heredity sets a range within which an individual’s development is actually shaped by the support and opportunities of the environment.

• Assessment of Intelligence
1905: Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon made the first successful attempt to formally measure intelligence.
1908: Gave the concepts of:
Mental Age (MA) is the measure of a person’s intellectual development relative to people of her/his age-group.
Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.
Retardation was being two mental age years below the chronological age.
1912: William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to ratio between MA and CA. Formula—mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100 (to avoid the decimal point).
• Average IQ in the population is 100, irrespective of age.
• Frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve—symmetrical around the central value, called the mean. 

VARIATIONS IN INTELLIGENCE

1. Intelligence Deficiency (Mentally Retarded/Challenged):
The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views mental retardation as significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period.
 In order to be judged as mentally retarded, a person must show:
(i) Significantly sub average intellectual functioning, e.g., IQ below 70.
(ii) Deficits in adaptive behaviour or the capacity to be independent and deal effectively with one’s environment.
Deficits must be observed during the developmental period, i.e., between 0-18 years. 

Mild retardation—development is typically slower than that of their peers but they can function quite independently, hold jobs and families. Level of retardation increases—lag behind their peers in language and motor skills, need to be trained in self-care skills and simple social and communication skills.

2. Intellectual Giftedness
Lewis Terman (1925): Study to show how intelligence was related to occupational success and life adjustment. These individual show higher performance because of their outstanding potentialities.
Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide variety of areas.
• Teacher’s perspective: depends on a combination of high ability, high creativity and high commitment.
• Early signs of intellectual superiority: during infancy show larger attention span, good memory, sensitivity to environmental changes, early appearance of language skills.
• Other characteristics are advanced logical thinking and problem solving, high speed in processing information, high level creative thinking, high self-esteem, independence.
• Incorrect to equate with brilliant academic performance: each gifted student possesses different strengths, personalities and characteristics, e.g., athletes.
Talent refers to remarkable ability in a specific field, e.g., social, and are often called prodigies.

Types of Intelligence Tests
Individual or Group Test

Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests 

Verbal, Non verbal or performance Tests 

CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE

A major characteristic of intelligence is that it helps individuals to adapt to their environment.
The cultural environment provides a context for intelligence to develop.
Culture is a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes and achievements in art and literature.
Sternberg:
• Notion of contextual or practical intelligence implies that intelligence is a product of culture.
Vygotsky (Russian psychologist):
• Culture provides a social context in which people live, grow and understand the world around them.
• Elementary mental functions (e.g., walking, crying) are universal; the manner in which higher mental functions such as problem solving and thinking operate are largely culture produced.

• Equal attention given to cognitive and non-cognitive processes and their integration:
(i) Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to context, understanding, discrimination, problem solving and effective communication).
(ii) Social competence (respect for social order, commitment to elders, the young and the needy, concern about others and recognizing others perspectives).
(iii) Emotional competence (self-regulation and self-monitoring of emotions, honesty, politeness, good conduct and self-evaluation).
(iv) Entrepreneurial competence (commitment, persistence, patience, hard work, vigilance and goal directed behaviour).

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression and regulation of emotions. It is the feeling side of intelligence.
(i) Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence in the same way as IQ is used to express intelligence.
(ii) Salovey and Mayer: The ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions.

SPECIAL ABILITIES

Aptitude indicates an individual’s capacity to acquire some specific knowledge or skill after training.
(i) People with similar intelligence differed widely in acquiring certain knowledge or skills, called aptitudes.
(ii) With proper training these abilities can be considerably enhanced.
Interest is a preference for a particular activity; aptitude is the potentiality to perform that activity.
(i) In order to be successful in a particular field, a person must have both aptitude and interest.

Aptitude Tests

• Creativity refers to the ability to produce ideas, objects and problem solutions that are novel and appropriate.
• It refers to the ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to came up with unique solutions to problems.
• Creativity involves the production of same thing new and original–it may be an idea, object or solution to a problem.
• Creativity can get manifested in different levels and in different areas.
• Everyday creativity/Day to day creativity. It could be reflected in day to day activities like writing, teaching, story telling, flower arrangement, dance etc.
• Special talent creativity/Higher order creativity. It is related to outstanding creative achievements e.g. inventions and discoveries.
• Creativity is always reality oriented, appropriate, constructive and socially desirable.
• Everyday creativity could be seen in terms of the level and the areas in which they exhibit creativity and that all may not be operating at the same level.
• Researches suggest that children mostly express their imagination through physical activities and in non verbal ways, although when language and intellectual functions are fully developed and store of knowledge is adequately available then creativity is expressed through verbal modes too.
• There is no disagreement that creativity in determined by both heredity and environment.
• Limits of the creative potential are set by heredity.
• Environmental factors stimulate the development of creativity.
• No amount of training can transform an average person to develop special talent creativity or higher order creativity like Tagore, Einstein or Shakespear.

CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE:

• Certain level of intelligence in necessary to be creative, but a high level of intelligence, however does not ensure that a person would certainly be creative.
• Researchers have found that both high and law level of creativity can be formed in highly intelligent children and also children of average intelligence.
• Relation between creativity and intelligence is positive.

WORDS THAT MATTER

• Aptitude: A combination of characteristics indicative of individual’s potential to acquire some specific skills with training.
• Aptitude Tests: Tests meant to measure individual’s potential to predict future performance.
• Beliefs: The cognitive component of the thoughts or ideas regarding a topic.
• Case Study: An intensive study of an individual or a situation to develop general principles about behaviour.
• Cognition: The process of knowing. The mental activities association with thought, decision making, language, and other higher mental processes.
 • Cognitive Assessment System: A battery of tests designed to measure the four PASS (Planning-Attention-Simultaneous-Successive) process.
• Componential Intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, it refers to ability to think critically and analytically.
• Contextual Intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, it is the practical intelligence used in solving everyday problems.
• Creativity: The ability to produce ideas, objects, and problem solutions that are novel and appropriate.
• Culture-fair Test: A test that does not discriminate examinees on the basis of their culture experiences.
• Emotional Intelligence: A cluster of traits or abilities relating to the emotional side of life-abilities such as recognizing and managing one’s own emotions, being able to motivate oneself and restrain one’s impulses, recognizing and managing others’ emotions, and handling interpersonal relationship in an effective manner. It is expressed in the form of an emotional quotient (EQ) score.
• Experiential Intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, it is the ability to use past experiences creatively to solve novel problems.
• Factor Analysis: Mathematical procedure, involving correlations, for sorting trait terms or test responses into clusters or factors; used in the development of test designed to discover basic personality traits. It identifies items that are homogeneous or internally consistent and independent of others.
• Fluid Intelligence: Ability to perceive complex relationship, reason abstractly, and solve problems.
• Genetics: The study of how the qualities of living things are passed on in their genes.
• Group Test: A test designed to be administered to more than one individual at the same time, in contrast to individual test.
• Individual Differences: Distinctiveness and unique variations among people’s characteristics and behaviour patterns.
• Individual Test: A test that must be given to a single individual at a time, typically by a specially trained person. The Binet and Wechsler intelligence tests are examples of individual test.
• Intellectual Giftedness: Exceptional general intellectual efficiency shown in superior performance in a wide range of tasks.
• Intelligence: The capacity to understand the world, to think rationally, and to use resources efficiency when faced with challenges.
• Intelligence Quotient (IQ): An index derived from standardized intelligence tests indicating a ratio of mental age to chronological age.
• Intelligence Test: Test designed to measure person’s level of intelligence.
• Interest: An individual’s preference for one or more specific activities.
• Interview: Purposeful conversation through face to face interaction.
• Mental Age (MA): A measure of intellectual functioning combined with varying degrees of deficits in adaptive behaviour.
• Mental Retardation: Sub-average intellectual functioning combined with varying degrees of deficits in adaptive behaviour.
• Normal Probability Curve: A symmetrical, bell-shaped frequency distribution. Most scores are found near the middle, and fewer and fewer occur towards the extremes. Many psychological characteristics are distributed in this manner.
 • Norms: Standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score on the test to the scores of others who have taken the same test.
• Observational Method: Employing systematic, organised and objective procedures to record behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real time.
• Observation method: Employing systematic organised and objective procedures to record behavioural phenomena occurring naturally.
• Performance Test: A test in which the role of language is minimized, the task requiring
overt motor responses other than verbal.
• Planning: In Das PASS model of intelligence, it involves goal setting, strategy selection, and monitoring of goal-oriented.
• Problem-solving Behaviour: The activity and mental processes involved in overcoming the obstacles, physical or conceptual, which lie between an animal and its goal.
• Psychological Test: An objective and standardized in instrument for measuring an individual’s mental and behavioural traits; used by psychologists to help people make decisions about their lives and understand more about themselves.
• Self-awareness: Insight into one’s own motives, potential and limitation.
• Sensitivity: Tendency to respond to very low levels of physical stimulation.
• Simultaneous Processing: Cognitive processing in the PASS model that involves integrating elements of the stimulus situation into composite and meaningful patterns.
• Situationism: A principle which states that situations and circumstances outside oneself have the power to influence behaviour.
• Successive Processing: Cognitive processing in the PASS model where elements of the stimulus situation are responded to sequentially.
• Values: Refers to the enduring beliefs about an ideal made of behaviour.
• Verbal Test: Test in which a subject’s ability understand in making and use words and concepts is important in making the required responses.

CBSE Class 12 Psychology Chapter 1 Intelligence and Aptitude Answer Type Questions

Question. How do psychologists characterize and define intelligence?
Answer. Psychological motion of intelligence is quite different from the common sensed motion of intelligence.
Generally people saw intelligence as mental alertness, ready art, quickness in learning and ability to understand relationships.
Oxford dictionary explained intelligence as the power of perceiving, learning understanding and knowing.
Accordingly Alfred Binet also used these attributes and defined intelligence as ability to judge well, understand well and reason well.
Later Wechsler gave a comprehensive definition in terms of its functionality, i.e., its value for adaptation to environment. He defined intelligence as “the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully and to deal effectively with his/her environment.”
Present day psychologists such as Gardner and Sternberg emphasized that “Intelligent individual not only adapts to the environment, but actively modifies or shapes it.”
Sternberg views intelligence as “ the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish ones goals and those of ones society and culture.”

Question. What extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)?
Discuss. 
Answer. (i) Whether intelligence is evolved or it is developed due to the environment, is a question of debate.
(ii) Lot of studies have been done to determine the role of nature and nurture.
(iii) Here we will discuss the controversy with the help of various twin studies, adoption studies and environmental studies.
On the basis of twin studies co-relation results are as follows:
(i) Identical twins reared together correlate 0.90
(ii) Identical twins reported early in childhood and reared in different environments correlate 0.72
(iii) Fraternal twins reared together correlate 0.60
(iv) Siblings reared together correlate 0.50
(v) Siblings reared apart correlate 0.25
• Adoption Studies before the Age of 6-7 Years
These studies of adopted children show that children’s intelligence is more similar to their biological parents.
These studies provide evidence that intelligence is determined because of nature.
• Adoption Studies after the Age of 6-7 Years
According to these studies as children grew older tends to more closer to that of their adoptive parents.
Environmental Studies
Evidence for the influence of environment (Nurture) on the basis of Twin studies.
(i) The intelligence score of twins reared apart as they grew older, tends to more closer to that of their adoptive parents.
(ii) On the basis of differences in environment, children from disadvantaged homes adopted into families with higher, socio-economic status exhibit an increase in their intelligence scores.
(iii) Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence. Factors such as nutrition, good family background and quality schooling increase growth rate of intelligence.
(iv) There is general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of complex interaction of heredity (Nature) and environment (Nurture).
(v) Heredity provides the potentials and sets a range of growth whereas environment facilitates the development of intelligence.

Question. Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner. 
Answer. Gardner’s theory based on information processing approaches functions on three basic principles:
(i) Intelligence is not a single entity, there exist multiple intelligences.
(ii) The intelligences are independent from each other.
(iii) Different types of intelligences work together to provide a solution of problem.
Gardner has so far proposed eight intelligences, however all individuals do not possess them in equal proportion. The particular situation or the context decides the prominence of one type of intelligence over the others.
Following are the eight types of intelligence:
1. Linguistic: This is related to reading, writing, listening, talking, understanding etc. Poets exhibit this ability better than others.
2. Logical-Mathematical: This type of intelligence deals with abstract reasoning and manipulation of symbols involved in numerical problems. It is exhibited in scientific work.
3. Spatial: This type of intelligence is involved in perceiving third dimension formation of images. It is used while navigating in space, forming, transforming and using mental images. Sailors, engineers, surgeons, pilots, care drivers, sculptors and painters have highly developed spatial intelligence.
4. Musical: Persons with musical intelligence show sensitivity to pitch and tone required for singing, playing and instrument, composing and appreciating music etc.
5. Bodily Kinesthetic: It requires the skills and dexterity for fine coordinated motor movements, such as those required for dancing, athletics, surgery, craft making etc.
6. Inter-personal: It requires understanding of motives, feelings and behaviours of other people. Sales people, politicians, teachers, clinicians and religious readers have high degree of inter-personal intelligence.
7. Intra-personal: It is related to understanding one’s self and developing a sense of identity. e.g., philosophers and spiritual leaders.
8. Naturalistic: It is related to recognizing the flora and fauna, i.e., natural world and making a distinction in the natural world. It is more possessed by hunters, farmers, tourists, students of biological sciences etc.

Question. How does the Triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence? 
Answer.
1. Robert J. Sternberg proposes a theory of intelligence based on information processing approach in 1985 known as the Triarchic theory of intelligence.
2. According to Sternberg, intelligence is an ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish ones goals and those of ones society and culture.
3. This theory attempts to understand the cognitive processes involved in problem solving.
4. According to him there are three types of intelligences:

(i) Componential intelligence (Analytical): This dimension specifies the cognitive processes that underlie an intelligent behaviour.
This dimension serves three different functions:
(a) Knowledge acquisition components: These are the processes used in learning, encoding, combining and comparing information.
(b) Metacomponents: ‘Meta’ means higher. These are executive processes. They control monitor and evaluate cognitive processing.
(c) Performance components: These components execute strategies prepared by metacomponents to perform a task.
For example, While studying students plan the lesson chapterwise, they make schedules, categories the learning material and do integrate the information to comprehend well.

(ii) Experiential intelligence (Creative): This dimension specifies how experiences effect intelligence and how intelligence effects a person’s experiences.
(a) Experiential intelligence refers to an individual’s ability to make use of one’s past experiences to deal with novel situations creatively and effectively.
(b) This intelligence is mostly high among scientists and creative people.
(c) For example if a person is trapped in a room, he finds out a way of coming out of the room using rope or ladder etc. in a creative way. He had some knowledge of getting out from this situation by watching out a movie few years back.
(iii) Contextual intelligence (Practical): This dimension specifies the ability to deal with environmental demands on daily basis.
(a) It is individual’s ability to make use of his/her potential to deal with day-to-day life.
(b) It may be called street smartness or ‘business sense’.
(c) People high in this ability are successful in life.
• It deals with the ways people handle effectively their environmental demands and adapt to different contexts with available resources.

Question. Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three ‘neurological systems’. Explain with reference to PASS model.
Answer. According to PASS model, theory based on information processing approach, intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of the three neurological systems called the functional units of the brain.
These units are responsible for:
• the arousal and attention.
• the simultaneous and successive processing.
• the planning.
Arousal and Attention
(i) State of arousal helps in attending to the stimuli.
(ii) Arousal and attention enable a person to process information.
(iii) Optimal level of arousal focuses our attention on relevant aspects of a problem.
(iv) Too much or too little arousal interferes with attention and performance.
Example: Arousal helps the individual to focus ones attention on reading, learning and revising the contents of the material to be learnt.
Simultaneous and Successive Processing:
Simultaneous Processing refers to perceiving relations amongst various concepts and integrate them into meaningful patterns for comprehension.
For e.g., in Raven’s standard progressive matrices (RSPM Test) choosing appropriate pattern by comprehending relationship.
Successive Processing refers to recalling information serially so that one recall leads to another recall. For example, learning of digits and letters and multiplication tables.
Planning:
1. After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated.
2. Planning involves reaching to the target and evaluating their effectiveness. Planning allows us to think of possible courses of action and implementing them.
3. If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or the situation.
4. For example, to take a test scheduled by your teacher, you’d have to set goals, plan a time schedule of studies, get clarifications in case of problems or think of other ways to meet your goals.

Question. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence?
Answer. Yes, culture, which is a set of beliefs, customs, attitudes and achievements in art of literature, affects the process of intellectual development.
• According to Sternberg, intelligence is a product of culture.
• Vyotsky believes that while elementary mental operations are common, higher mental activities like problem-solving and thinking are culturally produced.
• Technological Intelligence
(i) Promotes an individualistic pattern of action.
(ii) Individuals in technologically educated western societies possess this kind of intelligence.
(iii) They are well versed in skills of attention, observation, analysis, speed, moves abstraction, generalisation, creativity, Minimum moves etc.
• Integral Intelligence
(i) Intelligence in the Indian tradition is integral intelligence.
(ii) It views intelligence from a holistic perspective.
(iii) It gives equal attention to cognitive and non-cognitive processes, as well as their integration.
(iv) ‘Buddhi’ is the knowledge of one’s own self based on conscience, will and desire.
(v) It has effective, motivational as well as cognitive components.
It includes:
(i) Cognitive competence (discrimination, problem-solving).
(ii) Social competence (respect for elders, concern for others, respecting opinions of others).
(iii) Emotional competence (self regulation, self monitoring).
(iv) Entrepreneurial competence commitment, persistence, patience).

Question. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the bases of their IQ scores?
Answer. (i) IQ is an index of brightness.
(ii) It is the ratio of mental age to chronological age.
(iii) The concept of IQ was given by William Stern who gave the formula to calculate IQi.e.,
MA/CA × 100
• If MA > CA Above average
MA < CA Below average
MA = CA Average
• IQ is relatively stable.
• Average IQ is 100.
• It is a good predictor of potential.
• IQ scores are distributed in a population in such a way that most people tend to fall in the middle range of the distribution.
• This can be shown in the form of following table.
Classification of People on the Basis of IQ

Question. Discuss various types of intelligence tests.
Or
How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?
Answer. Types of Intelligence Tests:
Individual or group tests based on contact:
Individual Test:
(i) Administered to one individual at a time.
(ii) Requires the administrator to establish a rapport with the subject and be sensitive to his/her feelings, mood and expressions during the testing sessions which provides understanding of other aspects of subjects personality.
(iii) Allows people to answer orally or in written form or manipulate the objects as per the tester’s instructions.
• Example: Stanford Binet intelligence scale, WAIS, WISSC, Alexander Pass along test.
Group Test:
(i) Administered to several individuals at a time simultaneously.
(ii) Do not allow an opportunity to be familiar with the subjects’ feelings.
(iii) Seek answers in a Multiple-choice format.
(iv) It is relatively economical and less time consuming.
(v) Example: Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag Mehta, Group Test on Intelligence by S. Jalota.
Verbal, Non-verbal and Performance Tests based on Mode of Administration:
Verbal Tests:
(i) Requires subject to give verbal responses either orally or in written form.
(ii) Can be administered to literates only.
(iii) Example: CIE, Verbal Group Test, Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale.
Non-verbal Test:
• Has pictures or illustrations as test items.
• Example: Ravens progressive matrices. In this test the subject examines an incomplete pattern and chooses a figure from the alternatives that will complete the pattern.
• Reduces culture biases.
• Example: SRPM, CIE Non-verbal group test of Intelligence.
Performance Test:
• Requires the subject to manipulate objects to perform the test.
• Written language is not necessary for answering the items.
• Example: Kohs’s Block designs test. Here the subject is asked to arrange the blocks in a specified period to produce a given design, Bhatia’s Battery performance test.
• Can be administered to persons from different cultures and reduce culture biases.
• Example: Draw a Man Test by Pramila Pathak, Kohs Block designs test.
Culture Biased or Culture Fair Tests based on Nature of Items used:
• Psychological tests that show a bias toward the culture in which they are developed are Culture Biased Tests.
• Tests developed in America and Europe represent an urban and middle class cultural ethos. (Middle class white subjects perform well on these tests). The items do not consider favourably to Asians and AfricAnswer.
• Culture Fair Tests: One does not discriminate against as individuals belong to different cultures.
• Non-verbal and Performance Tests reduce cultural influences.
To overcome the limitation of Culture biased tests, Culture fair tests were developed. e.g. non-verbal and performance tests are called so because people of any culture could take them. For e.g. Standard progressive Matrices and Bhatia’s Battery Performance Test.

Question. How intelligence is normally distributed?
Or
All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in their intellectual ability? Explain.  
Answer. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. They vary in their intellectual ability. Some are exceptionally bright and some are below average. Scores of most people
tend to fall in the middle range of the distribution. Rest of the scores gradually and symmetrically decline towards both the sides but never touch the X-axis.
(i) The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve. This type of distribution is symmetrical around the central value, called the mean.
(ii) On the basis of IQ, people are classified in different groups. It is clear that only 2.2 percent people who possess above 130 IQ range are very intelligent or very superior, their IQ score is more than 130.
(iii) People falling between 90-109 IQ range are considered as average. The mean IQ score in a population is 100. People with IQ scores in the range of 90-110 have normal intelligence.
(iv) Those with IQ below 70 are suspected to have ‘mental retardation’. Mental retardation refers to sub-average intellectual functioning. The behaviour is maladaptive and manifest in four forms i.e., mild, moderate, severe and profound mental retardation.

The extreme right also lie to 2.2 percent population which are known as gifted i.e., they enjoy exceptional intelligence, exceptional talent and exceptional creativity.
Classification of People on the Basis of IQ

Question. Which of the two, IQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life and Why?
Answer. (i) IQ is a good predictor of potential.
(ii) EQ is a good predictor of success.
– Researchers had proved that—EQ helps in dealing with students who are stressed and face challenges of the outside world.
– It improves the academic performance.
– It is very useful in preparing students to face the challenges of life outside the classroom.
– They are less anti-social and more co-operative.

Question. How is ‘aptitude‘ different from ‘interest‘ and intelligence?
Answer. Aptitude:
(i) Aptitude refers to combination of characteristics indicative of an individual’s potential to acquire some specific skills with training.
(ii) It is specific mental ability or teach ability of an individual to learn a particular skill.
(iii) It is the potentiality to perform a particular activity.
(iv) Aptitude is a determiner to learn a particular skill.
Interest:
(i) Interest refers to preference for a particular activity or what one enjoys doing.
(ii) Interest are acquired/learnt.
(iii) Interest is a facilitator.
An individual with high scientific aptitude having strong interest in mechanical activities is more likely to be successful mechanical engineer.
(i) Intelligence is a global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally,act purposefully and to deal effectively with her/his environment.
(ii) Intelligence is a general mental ability.
(iii) It is product of heredity and environment.
(iv) It does not require training for the growth.

Question. How is creativity related to intelligence? 
Or
How creativity and creativity tests are related but different from each other?
Answer. Creativity and intelligence are positively correlated because high ability is component of creativity. A highly intelligent person may not be creative but all the creative persons are definitely high in intelligence.
(i) Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects, or problem solutions that are novel, appropriate and useful.
(ii) Intelligence is subset of creativity.
(iii) Terman found that persons with high IQ were not necessarily creative. The same time, creative ideas could come from persons who did not even one of those identified as gifted, followed up through out their adult life, had become well known for creativity in some field.
(iv) Researchers have found that both high and low level of creativity can be found in highly intelligent children and also children of average intelligence. The same person can be creative as well as intelligent but it is not necessary that intelligent once must be creative.
Creative tests are different from intelligence tests:
(i) Creative tests measure creative thinking ability whereas intelligence tests measure general mental ability.
(ii) Creative tests measure convergent and divergent thinking whereas intelligence test measure convergent thinking only.
(iii) Creative tests measure imagination and spontaneous expression to produce new ideas, to see new relationship, to guess causes and consequences and ability to put things in a new context. Intelligence tests measure potential.
(iv) In creative tests questions are open-ended that have no specified answers whereas intelligence tests mostly use close-ended questions.

CBSE Class 12 Psychology Chapter 1 Intelligence and Aptitude Multiple Choice Question

Question. Who among the following defines intelligence as the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, think rationally and deal effectively with the environment?
(a) Spearman
(b) Binet
(c) David Wechsler
(d) Galton
Answer. C

Question. Who among the following was the first person that devised systematic tests to measure intelligence of children?
(a) Terman
(b) Binet
(c) Thorndike
(d) Wechsler
Answer. B

Question. ________________ of Standford University revised Binet’s scale intended for school children in the United States.
(a) Wechsler
(b) Spearman
(c) Terman
(d) Thurstone
Answer. C

Question. The ratio which states the relationship between the mental age and the chronological age is called the—
(a) Development Quotient (DQ )
(b) Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
(c) Performance Quotient (PQ)
(d) None of the above
Answer. B

Question. Spearman said that there was a generability employed by people while adjusting with different sorts of intellectual tasks. This factor is called the—
(a) Specific factor
(b) General factor
(c) Multi-factors
(d) None of the above
Answer. B

Question. Who among the following had given the ‘Structure of Intellect Model’ of intelligence?
(a) Spearman
(b) Thurstone
(c) Guilford
(d) Thorndike
Answer. C

Question.Tests designed to measure capacities, that is to predict what one can accomplish with training, are called—
(a) Achievement tests
(b) Aptitude tests
(c) Intelligence tests
(d) Interest tests
Answer. B

Question.Test scores ______________ when they are dependable, reproducible and consistent.
(a) Unreliable
(b) Reliable
(c) Valid
(d) Invalid
Answer. B

Question. ________, a cousin of Charles Darwin developed the first test designed to measure intelligence.
(a) Alfred Binet
(b) Francis Galton
(c) Lewis Terman
(d) None of the above
Answer. B

Question. An I.Q. below _____________ is generally considered mental retardation.
(a) 100
(b) 70
(c) 120
(d) 110
Answer. B

Question. Louis Terman, who was responsible for the Stanford-Binet, adopted the __________ as an index of mental development.
(a) Mental Age (M A)
(b) Intelligence Quotient (I Q)
(c) Development Quotient (D Q)
(d) Performance Quotient (P Q)
Answer. B

Question. ____________ retarded people have the I Q ranging from 25 to 39.
(a) Mild
(b) Moderate
(c) Severe
(d) Profound
Answer. C

Question. Who among the following psychologists made the first attempt to classify mental retardation in terms of intelligence?
(a) Seguin
(b) Terman
(c) Binet
(d) Wechsler
Answer. A

Question. Moderately retarded people have the I.Q. range of ___________ on the Wechsler Scales.
(a) 25 to 39
(b) 40 to 54
(c) 55 to 69
(d) 20 to 25
Answer. B

Question.  Distinctiveness and variations among people’s characteristics and behavioural patterns is called:
(a) Situationism
(b) Individual differences
(c) Assessment
(d) Variability
Answer. B

Question. Who defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well and reason well?
(a) Binet
(b) Wechsler
(c) Sternberg
(d) Gardner
Answer. A

Question. Intelligence is the ability to shaping and adaptation. This notion was proposed by—
(a) Binet and Simon
(b) Wechsler
(c) Sternberg
(d) Gardner
Answer. C

Question. The theory that assumes intelligence as one similar set of abilities is called—
(a) Uni factor
(b) Two factor
(c) Hierarchical
(d) Structure of model 
Answer. A

Question. Two factor theory was proposed by—
(a) Arthur Jensen
(b) Guildford
(c) Spearman
(d) Binet
Answer. C

Question. Arthur Jensen model of intelligence consists of abilities operating at two levels. They are—
(a) Spatial and perceptual speed
(b) Associative learning and cognitive component
(c) ‘G’ factor and ‘S’ factor
(d) Visual and semantic
Answer. B

Question. Guildford’s model of intellect include _______________ cells.
(a) 120
(b) 130
(c) 180
(d) 100
Answer. C

Question. Who devised the concept of IQ?
(a) Binet and Simon
(b) William Stern
(c) Wechsler
(d) Spearman
Answer. B

Question. An IQ between the range of 90-100 is—
(a) Average
(b) Below average
(c) Borderline
(d) Mentally retarded
Answer. A

Question. Giftedness according to Teacher’s point of view is the combination of high ability, high creativity and—
(a) high judgement
(b) high thinking
(c) high commitment
(d) high motivation
Answer. C

Question. Who pioneered the construction of intelligence test in Hindi?
(a) C.B. Rice
(b) S.M. Mohsin
(c) Mahalanobis
(d) Uday Pareek
Answer. B

Question. Preference for a particular activity is called: (What one enjoys doing)
(a) Aptitude
(b) Interest
(c) Intelligence
(d) Attitude
Answer. B

Question. PASS model of intelligence emphasizes functioning of 3 functional units of brain namely arousal, planning and ____________________:
(a) successive and simultaneous and processing
(b) semantic and spatial
(c) conceptual and comprehensive
(d) speed and symbolic
Answer. A

Question. Cognitive assessment system (CAS) can be administered to children between the ages–
(a) 5-18
(b) 7-14
(c) 6-12
(d) 8-16
Answer. A

Question. IQ is calculated as–
(a) MA/CA × 100
(b) CA/MA × 100
(c) 100/CA × 100
(d) MA/100 × CA 
Answer. A

Question. Terms referring to remarkable ability in a specific field is called:
(a) Giftedness
(b) Intellectually superior
(c) Talent
(d) Intelligent
Answer. C

CBSE Class 12 Psychology Chapter 1 Intelligence and Aptitude Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question. What do you mean by individual differences?
Answer. (i) Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people’s characteristics.
(ii) Different traits can exist in varying degrees in an individual.
(iii) Each one of us is unique as we possess a novel or typical combination of various traits.

Question. How individual differences are useful for the society?
Answer. (i) Individual differences make the world beautiful, purposeful and goal directed.
(ii) Different people have different needs and to satisfy the different needs, different types of skills are required. That is why variability is a fact of nature which helps in adaptation.

Question. Why does the behaviour of an individual vary from situation to situation?
Answer. The behaviour of an individual varies from situation to situation because although our behaviours are influenced by our personal traits but it is also influenced by situational factors.Situations and circumstances in which one is placed influences person’s behaviour.

Question. What is situationist perspective of human behaviour?
Answer. The situationist perspective views human behaviour as resulting from interaction of external and internal factors. It is product of traits and environmental factors.
This approach believes that external factors play more important role to determine individual differences.

Question. What do you mean by psychological assessment?
Answer. Psychological Assessment uses systematic testing procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviours and personal qualities of individuals. Our assessment may be formal or informal.Formal assessment is objective, standardized and organized. Informal assessment varies from case to case and from one assessment to another and therefore is open to subjective interpretations.

Question. What is intelligence?
Answer. (i) According to Wechsler, intelligence is a global capacity to think rationally, deal effectively and act purposefully.
(ii) According to Binet, intelligence is an ability to reason well, to judge well and to understand well.

Question. What is an intelligence test?
Answer. Intelligence tests are standardized tools which provide a global measure of a person’s general cognitive competence including the ability to profit from schooling.

Question. What is aptitude?
Answer. Aptitude is a combination of characteristics indicative of an individuals potential to acquire some specific skills with training. For example, possession of certain qualities in different proportion to become a dancer or a computer programmer. It is individual teachability.

Question. What are aptitude tests?
Answer. (i) Aptitude tests are meant to measure an individual’s potential which in turn helps to predict future performance.
(ii) Aptitude tests are available in two forms: Independent (specialized) aptitude tests. For example, typing aptitude test or mechanical aptitude test and Multiple (generalized) aptitude tests, for example- Differential Aptitude Test.

Question. What is interest?
Answer. Interest refers to what one enjoys doing. It is an individual’s preference for engaging in one or more specific activities relative to others. e.g., Interest Inventory developed by NCERT, Comprehensive Interest Schedule (CIS).

Question. What is personality?
Answer. According to Allport, personality is a dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems which determine his/her characteristic pattern of behaviour and thought.

Question. What do you mean by values?
Answer. Values are enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour. It deals with do’s and dont’s. It is an important attribute of human personality which has a strong evaluative
and ‘ought to be’ aspect.

Question. What is a psychological test? 
Answer. Psychological test is an objective and standardized measure of an individual’s mental and behavioural characteristics.

Question. What is an interview?
Answer. Interview is verbal interaction between respondent and a researcher to gather information about the respondent.
(i) It is a purposeful conversation in face-to-face situation.
(ii) Interview may be structured or may be unstructured.

Question. What is observation?
Answer. (i) Careful perception is observation.
(ii) It involves systematic, organized and objective procedures to record behavioural phenomenon occurring naturally in real life situation.

Question. What is self report?
Answer. Self report is a method in which a person provides factual information about himself/ herself and opinions, beliefs etc. she/he holds.

Question. What is CAS?
Answer. J.P. Das and Naglieri have developed a battery of tests, known as Cognitive Assessment System (CAS).
(i) It consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive functions.
(ii) These are independent of schooling.
(iii) The battery of test is meant for individuals between 5 and 18 years of age.
(iv) It measures intelligence of normal as well as of retarded children.

Question. Differentiate between talent and giftedness.
Answer. Talent is a narrow term. It refers to remarkable ability in a specific field.
(i) The highly talented are called ‘prodigies’. Giftedness is an exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide variety of areas.

Question.What is Buddhi?
Answer. (i) Buddhi according to J.P. Das is the knowledge of one’s self.
(ii) It is based on conscience, will and desire.
(iii) The Notion of Buddhi contains combination of cognitive, affective and motivational aspects of personality.

Question. How Sternberg’s Concept of Intelligence is different from other concepts?
Answer. According to Sternberg, intelligence is not only adaptation, directional ability,comprehension and self-evaluation, it also improves activity like shaping and selecting
the environment.
Sternberg emphasised that intelligence does not simply mean possessing certain abilities but also the use of these abilities in real life situations.

Question. What is Contextual Intelligence? 
Answer. (i) Contextual intelligence is a concept of Triarchic theory given by Sternberg.
(ii) Contextual intelligence refers to ‘Street Smartness’ or ‘Situationally Smart’.
(iii) It is the effective management of the business of everyday life.
(iv) People high on contextual intelligence remain practical and down to earth in life.

Question. What is ‘Planning’ in Intelligence according to J.P. Das?
Answer. (i) Planning is concept of PASS model.
(ii) Planning refers to the generation of plans or problems. It involves goal setting, strategy selection and performance monitoring.
(iii) It allows the individual to think of possible course of actions, implement them, evaluate their effectiveness and, if the plan does not work, modify it.

Question. What is mental age?
Answer. (i) The concept of Mental age (MA) was given by Alfred Binet.
(ii) It refers to a measure of intellectual functioning expressed in terms of age.

Question. Mention main characteristics of a bell-shaped curve.
Answer. (i) Bell-shaped curve involves symmetrical distribution i.e., the left half of the curve is a mirror image of the right half.
(ii) It is a Uni Modal distribution.
(iii) The values of mean, median and mode all coincide.
(iv) The curve never touches the X-axis. It is asymptotic.

CBSE Class 12 Psychology Chapter 1 Intelligence and Aptitude Short Answer Type Questions

Question. “No two individuals are alike.” Explain.
Answer. (i) Human beings distinctly differ in size, shape, appearance, reaction time and innumerable other aspects of our personality and behaviour.
(ii) Individual differences stand for the variations and distinctiveness among individuals.
(iii) Individual differences stand for those differences which, in their totality, distinguish one individual from another.

Question. What is case study?
Answer. (i) Case study refers to a systematic reconstruction of the past. It is an in-depth study of the individual in terms of his/her psychological attributes, psychological history in the content of his/her psychological and physical environment.
(ii) Case studies are widely used in clinical settings to deal with problems related to
maladjustment.
(iii) Case studies use interview, observation, questionnaire and psychological tests.

Question. Differentiate between interpersonal and intra-personal intelligence.
Answer. Inter-personal Intelligence:
(i) Sensitive to understand others, behaviour.
(ii) It is understanding the motives, feelings and the behaviour of others.
(iii) Example: Psychologists, politicians, social workers.
Intra-personal Intelligence:
(i) Awareness of one’s own feeling, motives and desires.
( ) This refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations.
(iii) Example: Philosophers, spiritual leaders.
Psychologists, counsellors and religious leaders have dominance of both inter-personal as well as intra-personal types of intelligence.

Question. Explain two-factor theory of intelligence.
Answer. (i) Charles Spearman (1972) proposed the ‘Two Factor Theory’ of intelligence.
(ii) According to him, intelligence consists of General (’G’) and Specific (‘S’) factors.
(iii) This theory maintained that all intellectual activities share a single common factor, called ‘G’ factor characterised as mental energy.
(iv) ‘G’ is considered responsible for relationships between different human activities.Positive correlations between any two factors were attributed to ‘G’ factor.
(v) In addition to general factor, this theory also postulates a number of specific (‘S’) factors each being strictly specific to a single activity and helps to excel in that particular area.

Question. What is structure of intellect model?
Answer. (i) On the basis of more than two decades of factor analytical research, J.P. Guilford proposed a three-dimensions box-like model, which is known as Structure-of-Intellect Model.
(ii) This theory organizes intellectual traits along three dimensions: Operations— what the respondent does, Contents—the nature of the material or information on which operations are performed, and Products—the form in which information is processed by the respondents.
(iii) Guilford’s classification include 6 × 5 × 6 categories, resulting into 180 cells in the model.

Question. What is integral intelligence?
Answer. (i) The term integral intelligence refers to the Indian notion of intelligence contrary to Western view of intelligence which is limited to cognitive domain only.
(ii) Indian view is more inclusive and view of intelligence in a wider perspective.
(iii) It considers the social and emotional domain as well as task performance and emphasising on the connectivity between the social and work environment.

Question. Discuss the feeling aspect of intelligence.
Or
What is emotional intelligence?
Answer. (i) According to Salovey and Mayer, emotional intelligence is the ability to comprehend one’s own and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions.
(ii) It is a cluster of abilities relating to the emotional side of life.
(iii) Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to process emotional information accurately and effectively.
(iv) It is good predictor of success in life.
(v) Emotional intelligence is the ability to monitor one’s own emotion and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions.
(vi) EQ emotional Quotient in the measure of emotional intelligence.

Question. Mention some characteristics of emotionally intelligent person. 
Answer. (i) Emotionally intelligent person can perceive others emotions accurately and sensitive to one’s own feelings and emotions.
(ii) They are sensitive towards ones own emotions and thoughts while solving problems.
(iii) Emotionally intelligent persons are sensitive towards others emotions through their body language and para language.
(iv) They are able to control and regulate ones emotions and their expression to achieve harmony and peace.

Question. Define giftedness. What are the characteristics of gifted children? 
Or
How gifted children can be identified?
Answer. Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide variety of areas. It is combination of high ability, high creativity and high commitment.
Following are important characteristics of gifted children:
(i) Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem solving behaviour.
(ii) High speed in processing information.
(iii) Superior generalisation and discrimination ability.
(iv) Advanced level of original and creative thinking.
(v) High level of intrinsic motivation and self-esteem.
(vi) Independent and non-conformist thinking.
(vii) Preference for solitary academic activities for long periods.

CBSE Class 12 Psychology Chapter 1 Intelligence and Aptitude Short Answer Type Questions 

Question. What are the methods used for Psychological assessment?
Answer. Several methods are used for psychological assessment. Some of them are:

(i) Psychological Tests: There are objective and standardized measure of an individual’s mental and/or behavioural characteristics.
1. These objective tests have been developed to measure all the dimensions of psychological attributes. e.g., intelligence, aptitude etc.
2. Psychological tests are widely used for clinical diagnosis, guidance, personnel selection, etc.
3. Projective tests have also been developed for assessment of personality.

(ii) Interview: Interview is purposeful conversation seeking information from a person
on a one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-many or many-to-one basis.
1. It may be structured or unstructured.

(iii) Case-Study:
1. Case studies are an in-depth study of the individual in terms of is/her psychological attributes, and physical environment.
2. These are based on data generated by different methods, e.g., interview, observation, questionnaire, psychological tests, etc.
3. Case study is reconstruction of the past.

(iv) Observation: Observation involves implying systematic, organized and objective procedures to record behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real time.
1. The major problems with observational methods are that the observer has little control over the situation and the reports may suffer from subjective interpretations of the observer.
2. It is very time consuming and requires profession expertise.

(v) Self-report: Self-report is a method in which a person provides factual information about himself/herself and/or opinion, beliefs etc. that he/she holds. This information can be obtained by an interview schedule, questionnaire, a psychological test etc.

Question. How psychometric approach of intelligence is different from information processing approach? 
Answer. (i) The psychometric approach of intelligence is also known as the structural approach.
(ii) It considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It explains an individual’s performance in term of a single index of cognitive abilities.
(iii) It focuses on the structure of intelligence, i.e., what is intelligence. e.g., the unifactor theory, the two factor theory, the theory of primary mental abilities, etc.
(iv) Information processing approach describes the processes people use in intellectual reasoning and problem solving.
(v) The major focus of this approach is on how an intelligent person acts. It emphasizes on studying cognitive functions underlying intelligent behaviour.
(vi) e.g., theory of multiple intelligences, PASS model and triarchic theory of intelligence.

Question. Elaborate the status of intelligence testing in India.
Answer. The development of intelligence tests in India has for long remained one of the fascinating and popular academic pursuits.
(i) The first systematic attempt to standardize a test of intelligence was Binet’s intelligence test which was adopted by Dr. Rice in Urdu and Punjabi in 1930’s.
(ii) Mahalanobis also attempted to standardize Binet’s test of intelligence in Bengali.Attempts were also made to develop Indian norms for some other foreign tests like WAIS, RPM and Kohs’ Block Design test and others.
(iii) The first doctorate on test construction was awarded to K.G. Desai in1954 for the development of a group test of intelligence in Gujarati.
(iv) Dr. S.M. Mohsin developed first group test of intelligence in Hindi.
(v) Some tests developed in India include Group test of intelligence by Prayag Mehta, Draw a man test by Promila Pathak, CIE Non-verbal test etc. 

Question. Discuss uses and abuses of intelligence test.
Answer. Intelligence tests serve many useful purposes if used by trained professionals.
Uses of Intelligence Test: Intelligence test assists in selection, counselling, guidance,self analysis and diagnosis.
Abuses of Intelligence Test: Intelligence test causes ill effects/misuses/abuses if used by naive testers.
(i) Poor performance on a test is stigma to children which affects adversely to the performance.
(ii) Test results may lead to discriminating practices from parents, teachers and elders.
(iii) Most of the intelligence tests favour middle class and higher class population because of culture bias.
(iv) Most of intelligence tests ignore creativity and practical aspects of life.

Question. What is mental retardation? 
Answer. The term mental retardation refers to intellectual functioning that is considerably below average combined with varying degrees of difficulty in meeting the demands of everyday life. In shorts it is a deficit in potential.
The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views mental retardation as “significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive and manifested during the developmental period.”
People are appropriately regarded as mentally retarded if—
• they attain IQ’s below 70 on an appropriate intelligence test.
• it is deficit in potential.
• their adaptive skills are inadequate to cope with the ordinary daily tasks. On the basis of low IQ alone, over two percent of our population can be regarded as retarded.
• the deficits must be observed during the developmental period, i.e., between zero and eighteen years of age.
Two points are worth nothing—first, low performance on a test may also be due to defects in vision, hearing and health which may lead to categorizing a person as mentally challenged. So these conditions should be kept in mind. Second the person’s linguistic and cultural backgrounds must also be taken into consideration.
Categories of mental retardation

Question. Differentiate between intelligence and aptitude.
Answer. 1. Intelligence: Intelligence refers to the general ability of a person to do certain things at a given time.
(i) It is a product of heredity and environment and does not require training for the growth.
2. Aptitude:
(i) It is the potential ability of an individual to acquire specific skills.
(ii) It requires training also to capitalize the ability.
(iii) It is teachability in the individual.

Question. What are the uses of aptitude tests?
Answer. Aptitude refers to special capacity or capacities. Tests designed to measure capacities,i.e., to predict what one can accomplish with training are called aptitude tests. They serve some useful purposes:
1. Aptitude tests measure mere specific abilities: Mechanical aptitude tests measure various types of eye-hand co-ordination.
2. Selection: Aptitude tests are used for employee selection. They test specific abilities required for a particular job.
3. Career guidance: Aptitude tests also provide career guidance to the student.Aptitude tests help them to select a proper career by discovering the abilities they possess.
4. Prediction: Aptitude tests are used to predict success in various specific professions.

Question. Differentiate between Simultaneous Processing and Successive Processing?
Answer. (i) The concepts are introduced by J.P. Das, Kirbi and Nagliery in their PASS model of intelligence.
(ii) Simultaneous Processing takes place when one perceives relations amongst various concepts and integrate them into meaningful patterns for comprehension.
(iii) For e.g., Raven’s progressive matrices (RPM Test)—a design is presented from which a part has been removed. Subject has to choose one of the six options that appropriately complete the design.
(iv) Simultaneous processing helps in grasping the meaning and the relationship between the given variables.
(v) Successive Processing takes place when one is able to arrange all the information serially.
(vi) Each step in the series helps to understand the next step, i.e., one recall leads to another recall—e.g., learning of digits and letters and multiplication tables.

Question. Differentiate between technological and integral intelligence. 
Answer. (i) Technological Intelligence: It is Western view of intelligence which includes following skills:
— Generalization — Abstraction
— Speed — Minimal moves
— Creativity
— Mental manipulation. The concept of technological intelligence is based on urbanization, schooling, technological advancement and child rearing practising.

(ii) Integral Intelligence: It is identified as Indian view of intelligence. It includes following competencies:
(iii) Cognitive capacity: Sensitivity to context, understanding discrimination, problem solving, and effective communication
(iv) Social competence: Respect for social order, commitment to elders, the young and the needy, concern about others, recognizing others’ perspectives.
(v) Emotional competence: Self-regulation and self-monitoring of emotions, honesty, politeness, good conduct and self-evaluation.
(vi) Entrepreneurial competence: Commitment, persistence, patience, hard work, vigilance and goal-directed behaviours.

Question. What is creativity?
Answer. (i) Creativity refers to the ability to thinks in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unique solutions to problems.
(ii) Creativity is reality-oriented, appropriate, constructive and socially desirable.
(iii) Individual’s vary in terms of the level and the areas in which they exhibit creativity.
(iv) It may be related to simple occupations and may be higher levels i.e., related to the artists, the scientists, the inventors etc., however they are not working at the same level.
(v) Creativity may be doing things differently. It is working on what has already been done earlier by way of modifications, by putting things in new perspectives or to new use.
(vi) It is determined by both heredity and environment. Limits of the creative potential are set by heredity. Environmental factors stimulate the development. e.g., Motivations, commitment, family support, peer influences, opportunities etc.

CBSE Class 12 Psychology Chapter 1 Intelligence and Aptitude Long Answer Type Questions  

Question. Explain theories related to Psychometric Approach of Intelligence.
Answer. The psychometric approach considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It expresses an individual’s performance in terms of a single index of cognitive abilities.
(i) Alfred Binet conceptualized intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be used for solving all problems in individual’s life. This theory of
intelligence is called uni or one-factor theory of intelligence.
(ii) Charles Spearman introduced the two-factor theory of intelligence employing a statistical method called factor analysis.
— He said that intelligence consisted of a general (g-factor) and some specific factors (s-factor).
— The g-factor includes mental operations which are primary and common to all performances.
— In addition to the g-factor, he said that there is an s-factor which is not common and help the individual to excel in a particular field.
(iii) Theory of primary mental abilities was proposed by Louis Thurston.
— It says that intelligence consists of seven primary abilities. Each ability is relatively independent from others.
These ability are:
(i) Verbal comprehensions, (ii) Numerical Abilities,
(iii) Spatial Relations, (iv) Perceptual Speed, (v) Word fluency, (vi) Memory,
(vii) Inductive Reasoning.
(iv) Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchical model of intelligence, consisting of abilities operating at two levels.
Level-I: associative learning in which output is more or less similar to the input.
Level-II: called cognitive competence, involves high order skills as they transform the input to produce an effective output.
(v) Structure-of-intellect-model: Proposed by J.P. Guilford.
(vi) He classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions—operations, contents and products.
(vii) Operations are what the respondent does. e.g., memorization of a poem.
(viii) Contents refer to the nature of materials or information on which intellectual operations are performed. e.g., poem is familiar or unfamiliar, learner using a particular sense modality, method use.
(ix) Products refer to the form in which information is processed by the respondent. e.g., understanding and application of the theme of poem.

Question. What is creativity? How is it related to intelligence and how are creativity tests different from intelligence tests?
Answer. Creativity is the ability to think in different ways, to find causes and consequences, to connect ideas that otherwise may not seem like they can be connected.
• Creativity is an ability to perform some activity with honesty/originality or differently.
Creativity correlates well with intelligence.
Creativity requires a minimum level of intelligence. Beyond that level, intelligence is not needed to ensure creativity.
According to the research conducted by Terman in the 1920’s, which followed up gifted people throughout their adult lives, none of them were known for creativity in their fields. Other researchers have also conducted researches in their field and have found that everybody has the potential to increase their level of creativity. It was also found that both high and low levels of creativity was found in intelligent children. The same was also found in children of average intelligence.
It is not necessary that intelligent people in the conventional sense, have a high level of creativity.